tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30507895179156812612024-03-13T23:18:55.361-07:00Political scienceKhushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.comBlogger17125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-84923306745703981942023-07-17T12:44:00.003-07:002023-07-17T12:49:42.390-07:00International Relations Pre World War 2<p> <span style="background-color: #f7f7f8; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; white-space: pre-wrap;">The period of international relations before World War II, often referred to as the interwar period, took place between the end of World War I in 1918 and the outbreak of World War II in 1939. This period was marked by significant political, economic, and social upheavals that shaped the world and set the stage for the events that followed. Here are some key aspects of international relations during this time:</span></p><ol style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; counter-reset: list-number 0; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style: none; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, was the peace settlement that officially ended World War I. It imposed heavy reparations on Germany, limited its military, and forced it to accept full responsibility for the war. The treaty also redrew the map of Europe, creating new nations and altering borders.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">League of Nations: The League of Nations was established in 1920 as an international organization aimed at maintaining peace and resolving disputes between nations through diplomacy and collective security. However, it faced challenges, as some major powers, including the United States, never joined, and it lacked an effective mechanism to enforce its decisions.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Economic Turmoil: The interwar period was characterized by economic instability, particularly the Great Depression of the 1930s. The economic crisis affected many countries worldwide, leading to unemployment, poverty, and social unrest.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Rise of Totalitarian Regimes: The aftermath of World War I saw the rise of totalitarian regimes in various countries. Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime took power in Germany in 1933, Benito Mussolini established a fascist regime in Italy in the 1920s, and Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union became increasingly authoritarian.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Appeasement Policy: In response to the growing aggression of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, some Western democracies adopted a policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid conflict by making concessions to the aggressors. This policy, however, proved to be ineffective in deterring further expansionist ambitions.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Expansionist Policies: Both Germany and Italy pursued expansionist policies in the 1930s. Germany annexed Austria (Anschluss) in 1938 and later demanded the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, leading to the Munich Agreement in September 1938, which allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Japanese Expansion: Japan embarked on an aggressive expansionist policy in Asia during the interwar period, invading Manchuria in 1931 and later launching a full-scale invasion of China in 1937.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Spanish Civil War: The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a conflict between Republicans (supported by various leftist factions) and Nationalists (led by Francisco Franco, supported by fascists and Nazis). It became a proxy war for various international interests and was a precursor to World War II.</p></li></ol><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;">These are just some of the important developments in international relations before World War II. The interwar period was a complex and tumultuous time, with various factors contributing to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. The failures of diplomacy, the rise of totalitarianism, economic struggles, and territorial ambitions of various nations all played a significant role in shaping the course of history.</p>Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-74261377874890867922016-01-27T12:47:00.002-08:002023-07-17T12:52:13.646-07:00Thomas Hobbes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 1.25em; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, best known for his work in political philosophy. Born on April 5, 1588, in Westport (now part of Malmesbury), Wiltshire, England, he lived during a time of great political and religious upheaval in Europe. Here is an overview of his early life and some of his major achievements:</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;">Early Life:</p><ol style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; counter-reset: list-number 0; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style: none; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Family Background: Thomas Hobbes was born into a relatively humble family. His father, also named Thomas Hobbes, was a disgraced Anglican clergyman who left his family when Thomas was still very young. His mother, also named Thomazine, later remarried.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Education: Despite the challenging circumstances, Hobbes received a good education. He attended the Malmesbury Grammar School and later studied at Magdalen Hall (now Hertford College), Oxford, from 1603 to 1608. There, he studied classics, philosophy, and science, and his education laid the groundwork for his future intellectual pursuits.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Early Career: After completing his studies, Hobbes worked as a tutor for the Cavendish family (the Earls of Devonshire). His position as a tutor provided him with opportunities to travel, meet prominent intellectuals, and delve deeper into his philosophical interests.</p></li></ol><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;">Achievements:</p><ol style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; counter-reset: list-number 0; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style: none; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Political Philosophy: Hobbes is most renowned for his contributions to political philosophy. In his major work, "Leviathan" (1651), he presented his social contract theory and articulated the idea of a strong central authority or sovereign to maintain order and prevent the chaos of the state of nature.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">State of Nature and Social Contract: Hobbes's conception of the state of nature, a hypothetical pre-political condition, depicted a life without government as "nasty, brutish, and short." He argued that individuals would voluntarily submit to a social contract, surrendering some freedoms to the sovereign in exchange for protection and stability.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Sovereignty and Absolutism: Hobbes believed in the absolute power of the sovereign, advocating for an authoritarian form of government to prevent the potential chaos that would arise from decentralized authority.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Materialist Philosophy: Beyond his political ideas, Hobbes made significant contributions to materialist philosophy. He argued that everything, including human thoughts and emotions, could be explained by the mechanical movements of matter.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Scientific Contributions: Hobbes also had an interest in mathematics and physics. He corresponded with prominent scientists of his time, including Galileo and René Descartes, and contributed to the development of modern optics.</p></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; counter-increment: list-number 1; display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-top: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em;"><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0px;">Influence: Hobbes's ideas sparked intense debates and controversies during his lifetime and continue to influence political thought and philosophy to this day. His views on the nature of government, individual rights, and the social contract remain crucial topics in political theory.</p></li></ol><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,0.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px 0px; text-align: start; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thomas Hobbes's work significantly shaped the development of political philosophy and had a profound impact on subsequent thinkers and political systems. He passed away on December 4, 1679, in Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, England, leaving behind a lasting legacy in the world of philosophy and political thought.</p></div>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-83246734713024104312016-01-27T11:37:00.000-08:002016-03-04T02:00:09.357-08:00Niccolo Machiavelli<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 30.0pt; line-height: 107%;">His life<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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Niccolo Machiavelli born in Florence on May 3, 1469 and
expired in 1527. He was an Italian historian, Statesman and political
philosopher who is very popular because of his thoughts gull of cunning and
duplicity.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Machiavelli joined government services as a clerk and rose
to prominence when the Florentine Republic was proclaimed in 1498. He was
secretary of the ten man council that conducted the diplomatic negotiations and
supervised the military operations of the republic, and his duties included missions
to the French king (1504, 1510-1511), the Holy See (1506), and the German Emperor
(1507-1508). During his diplomatic missions within Italy he knew many study
their political tactics, particularly of Cesare Borgia, who was at that time
engaged in enlarging his holdings in central Italy. From 1503 to 1506
Machiavelli reorganized the military defense of the republic of Florence. In
1523, when the Medici, a Florentine family, regained power in Florence and the
republic was dissolved, he was deprived of office and imprisoned for alleged
conspiracy against the Medici. Lorenzo was the last Medici ruler at that time
and Machiavelli dedicated his ‘the Prince of Lorenzo. After his release he
retired to his estate near Florence, Where he wrote his most important works.
Despite his attempts to gain favor with the Medici rulers, he was never
restored to his government position, he died in Florence on June 21, 1527.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Throughout his career Machiavelli sought to establish a
state capable of resisting foreign attack. His writings are concerned with the
Principles on which such a state is founded, and with the means by which they
can be implemented and maintained. His book originally known as “ ALL Princhi
Pay’’. i.e the Prince has world-wide fame. In his book he describes the method
by which a prince can acquire and maintain political power.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Machiavellian ism, as a term has been used to describe the
principles of power politics, and the type of person who uses principles in
political or personal life is frequently described as a Machiavellian.<br />
<b><u>Machiavelli's View of Human Nature:-</u></b><br />
Machiavelli analyzed human nature and in the very opening pages his 'THE PRINCE' he explains that how a standard human being ought to be and how is he in practice, there wide gulf. In the Prince Niccolo maciavelli presents a view of governing a state that is severely different from that of humanists of his authority determining every aspect of the state and put in effect a policy, which would serve his best interests. these interests were gaining, maintaining. </div>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-67917738670565234852016-01-27T10:52:00.000-08:002016-01-27T10:52:04.088-08:00Saint Thomas Aquinas<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 30.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Early Life<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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Thomas Aquinas ( 1225 – 1274 ) was an Italian philosopher
and theologian, whose work have made him the most important figure in
Scholastic philosophy and one of the leading Roman Catholic theologians.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aquinas was born of a noble family and was educated at a
monastery at the University of Naples. In 1245 Aquinas then journeyed to Paris
to continue his studies. Because learners called him Dumb Ox, but Albertus
Magnus (his teacher) is said to have predicted that “this ox will one day fill
the world with his bellowing.’’<o:p></o:p></div>
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He began to teach at the University of Paris in 1252.In 1256
Aquinas was awarded a doctorate in
theology and appointed as professor of philosophy at the university of paris.
Pope Alexander IV called him to Rome in 1259, where he acted as adviser and
lecturer to the papal court.<o:p></o:p></div>
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During the 13<sup>th</sup> century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
sought to reconcile Aristotelian Philosophy with Augustinian theology. Aquinas
employed both reason and faith in th study of metaphysics, moral philosophy,
and religion.while Aquinas accepted the existence ofGod on fiath, he offered
five proofs of God’s Existence to support such a belief.<o:p></o:p></div>
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In March 1274 while traveling to the Council of Lyon, to
which he had been commissioned by pope Gregory X, Aquinas fell ill.<o:p></o:p></div>
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He died on March 7. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-35150856836547338552016-01-07T12:00:00.002-08:002016-01-07T12:00:44.749-08:00Aristotle<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b> Early Life </b></div>
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Aristotle born in 384 BC and expires in 322 BC,
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher shares with Plato and Socrates the distinction
of being the most famous of the ancient philosophers. Born at Stagira,
in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court, Aristotle
moved to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for about 20
Years, first as a student and then as a teacher. He was a famous pupil of
Plato. He became tutor to Alexander the Great. In 335 BC, when Alexander became
king, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, the lyceum.
Because much of discussion in his school took place while teachers and students
were walking about the lyceum grounds, it came to be known as the peripatetic (walking
and scrolling) school. He died there in 332 BC.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aristotle is about the first regular political
philosopher and his book “Politics “has worldwide fame. He presented very important
political thoughts in his book. Although first book written on political
thoughts is that of Plato but due to real ideologies on politics, Aristotle's
efforts are more reliable and authentic. Therefore, one is justified to say that
Aristotle is the father of Political science.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Aristotle Concept of origin of state<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Plato's concept of ideal state was mere a theoretical
scheme, which has not yet been applied. On contrary, the concept of state
presented by Aristotle has logical grounds. Aristotle’s concept of the origin
of state can be started from his famous quotations, “Man is a political animal,
destined by nature for state life. “State exits for the sake of good life, and
for the sake of life only."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Aristotle, the father of political science, says that person
is a political animal and is different from the other animals because of his
civilized nature or nature of going from good to better and from better to the
best, Human progress and cultured status is impossible without interrelations,
so, man prefers to live to live with others to get various basic needs,
especially economic and racial needs, man and women, mater and slaves came
together and as a result, the first institution of human civilization, family
was formed. So, family is to give utility. When families increased, they made
villages to solve some greater needs. Due to some other greater problems and
needs, the tribes and villages united in a single and greater institution, the
state. According to Aristotle, State is a magnified useful human institution
comprised of different type of people where all people are welded by nature by
habit and by need. In the words of Aristotle," Family is the association
established by nature for the supply of man's every day wants. But when several
families are united and the association aims at something more than the supply
of daily needs, then come into existence the village. When several villages are
united in a single community, Perfect and large enough to be merely quite
self-suffering, the state comes into existence, originating in the vary needs
of life and continuing<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in existence for
the sake of good life."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"> Individuals---Families---Villages---State.</span></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The economic needs of individual may be fulfilled in his
family but his full moral and rational uplift is possible only within the
state. It is state that provides suitable Environment for human development.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: Calibri;">NATURAL
INSTITUTION:-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">He holds that family is not imposed one or artificial
institution but natural. Similarly, State is the magnified form of family
therefore, state is also a natural institution. This natural institution is the
logical outcome of the human need to develop his potentialities. Fosters
supports Aristotle concept by saying that. It is like a nest not like a
cage."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Historical/
evolutionary concept:-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Aristotle's Concept by saying that he believed in
evolutionary or historical theory of the origin of state. Therefore, his
approach in this connection is correct, Man as a civilized individual cannot
survive without state and if he claims, then it means he homeless. He is either
above or below humanity.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><u>Happiness:</u>-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Aristotle is of the view that mere unity of the families
into villages and of villages into a greater society or state is not the end point.
After establishing a society it is must that there will be peace and
development, which is impossible without happiness. A happy society on one side
is to provide benefits and mental pleasures but on the other is to ensure a
stable society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Administration:-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">He is of the opinion that a good family has a head who is to
administer the affairs of his family. His orders are followed by the family
members.in this way there is a head of the village, tribe or colony who tries
to solve the problems of his subjects through his talent and capabilities. When
various villages are to form a state through their unity, the same sate is in
need of an administration. This administration is to control the state. This
administration according to Aristotle is government. Head of that government is
called sovereign or king.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Balanced collectivism:-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">He is influenced of his teacher, Plato and accepts his view
that human being is incomplete out of the state. A civilized man cannot live
alone. He is in the need of assistance and cooperation of his other fellow
being. His basic needs of life are grand which he cannot face lonely. But
Aristotle like Plato does not sacrifice his individuality for the state. His
approach in this connection is balanced. He says individual and state are not
two different things. If there is individual, there is state and if there is
state there is respect of individual. Both are the needs of each other.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>State – A source
of benevolence and unity:</u></b>-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Aristotle holds that state is a strong source of benevolence
and unity. Human survival is dependent upon benevolence and unity. Mutual unity
is to mix people of different professions, tastes and qualities. They are to
share their capabilities, which provide happiness to society. So, it is state,
which provide unity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Two organizations
to develop sate:-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;">He says when state comes into being, there are two
organizations. Through which try their best to develop the state i.e. moral
organizations coordination, discipline love and fraternity and unity are
produced. It keeps a society healthy and full of justice. Political
organizations are to run the state administration; stabilize societies and
provides protection to state. These political organizations are to ensure
protection from the neighboring enemies. Protection of the international
borders is to play a significant role in internal happiness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-86952945275622229942015-06-02T22:03:00.000-07:002015-06-02T22:03:13.446-07:00Plato<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Early
life<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;">Plato was creek
philosopher who born in 428 BC in Athens, one of the most important cuty-state
of Greece. Plato is one of the most creative and influential thinkers in
Western thoughts. Plato belonged to an aristocratic family in the Athenian
democracy. His father, Ariston, was believed to be descended from the early
kings of Athens. He became a disciple of Socrates, almost the first regular
philosopher. Plato witnessed the execution of Socrates be the Athenian
democracy in 399 BC. Due to his fears own unsafe position, he left Athens for
the time being and went to Italy and Egypt. In 387 BC Plato founded the academy
in Athens, the institution often described as the first European university of
knowledge. If provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy,
biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. The concluding years of
his life were spent lecturing at the academy and writing. He died at about the
age of 80 in Athens in 347 or 347 BC.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Plato is one of
the most famous philosophers of ancient Greece, was the first to use the term
philosophy, which means ‘’ love of knowledge’’. Plato investigated a wide range
of topics. In all his writings there are only two book length works, the
republic and the laws. the laws was the last thing Plato wrote, at eighty, and
it was a shocking and terrifying conclusion of the totalitarian the situation
they came to agreement and instituted law and government through a sort of social contract and preached the philosophy
of just. Therefore, justice in this way is something artificial and unnatural.
It is through this artificial rule of justice and law that the natural
selfishness of man is chained.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">In simple words,
glaucon defines justice as, ‘’it is the creation of fear and is an external and
artificial thing.’’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;">Plato realizes
that all theories expounded by Cephalus, Thrasymachus and glaucon, contained
one common element. The one common element was that all of them treated justice
as something external ‘’an accomplishment, and importation, or a convention,
they have, none of them carried it into the soul or a convention, they have,
none of them carried it into the soul or considered it in the place of its
habitation.’’ Plato proves that justice does not depend upon a chance,
convention or upon external force. It is the right condition of the human soul
by the very nature of man when seen in the fullness of environment. It is in
this way that Plato condemned the
position taken by Glaucon that justice is something, which is external.
According to Plato, it is internal as it resides in the human soul.’’ It is now
regarded as an inward grace ad its understanding is shown it to involve a study
of the inner man.’’ It is, therefore, natural and no artificial. It is
therefore, not born of fear of the weak but of the longing of the human soul to
do a duty according to its nature.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;">Simply, Plato says
that justice is natural and he believes that state is like a loving organism while individuals are its organs, pain to any individual will suffer the whole
body. Therefore, it is justice to look after individuals in the best way. It
shall make state strong.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS; font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Features
of the </span></span><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"><span style="font-size: 19px; line-height: 21.466665267944336px;">concept</span></span><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS; font-size: medium;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> of justice<o:p></o:p></span></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;">A unique thing in Plato's political philosophy is his special emphasis on his concept of justice, Plato has based his ideal state on justice and the theory is the crown of his book, ‘’THE REPUBLIC’’.
Theory of justice is the vital part of his philosophy and it is his alone
thought which was practiced and is still studied by the succeeding generations
and students of politics with keen interest. His theory and of justice is
eternal while many other thoughts are Utopians. Plato says that justice is the
fundamental and natural right of the human beings. The basic stimulant behind
this theory was the moral decay and degradation of the Greek Athens that
compelled Plato to base his ideal state on the concept of justice for injustice was the main cause of the fall of Athens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;">Plato in his
thoughts gives very important place to justice. He used the Greek work
‘’dikaisyne’’ for justice, which comes very near to the work ‘morality’ or
‘righteousness’, it properly includes within it the whole duty of man. It also
covers the whole field of the individual’s conduct in so far as it affects
others. Individually’’ justice is a ‘human virtue’ that makes a man
self-consistent and good: socially, justice is a social consciousness that
makes a society internally harmonious and good.’’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;">Plato contended
that justice is the quality of soul. Plato
was highly dissatisfied with the degenerating moral conditions in
Athens. The Athenian democracy was going to ruin and was ultimately responsible
for Socrates death. Plato sensed that justice is the only remedy of saving Athens from decay and ruin. Plato was anxious about political unrest, excessive individualism and selfishness. His anxiety resulted his political views in the
form of the construction of an ideal society in which ‘’ justice’’ reigned
supreme, since Plato found in justice fundamental principal of well-order
society.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Plato’s concept of
justice has the following features:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Non-interference:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"> Human organism according to Plato contains
three elements-Reason, spirit and appetite. An individual is just when each
part of his or her soul performs its functions without interfering with those
of other elements. For example the reason should rule on behalf of the entire soul with wisdom
and forethought. The element of spirit will sub-ordinate itself to the rule of
reason. Those two elements are brought into harmony by combination of mental
and bodily training. They are set in command over the appetites which form the
greater part of man’s soul.therefore, the reason and spirit have to control
these appetites, which are likely to grow on the bodily pleasures. These
appetites should not be allowed, to enclave the other elements and usurp the
dominion to which they have no right. When all the three agree that among them
the reason alone should rule, there is justice within the individual. According
to Plato, it is justice that one should concentrate on his own duties and not
to interfere in the spheres and duties of others. According to Plato, it is
justice that should concentrate on his own duties and not to interfere in
the spheres and duties of others. According to Plato, justice is simply the
will to fulfill the duties of one’s station and not to meddle with the duties
of another station, and its habitation is, therefore, in the mind of every
citizen who does his duties in his appointed place. It is the original
principle, Laid down at the foundation of the state. ‘’ that one man should
practice one thing only and that the thing to which his nature was best
adopted’’. True justice to Plato, therefore, consists in the principle of
non-interference. In Plato theory of justice, the concept of non-interference is
the very base of justice. Here he believes in individual’s liberty and
independence of his fellow beings. It will enable people to utilize their
potentials efficiently.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Functional
specialization:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">The
republic, Plato’s book, argues that justice in the soul is linked to justice in
the city. Both soul and city have three parts: a desiring part; a spirited part
( something like the will ); and a rational part. Justice involves each part
carrying out its own proper function. Plato argues that this means that the two
non-rational parts must be ruled be the rational part. Far from being a mere
analogy, the relation classes in the city must be ruled by the highest class, the philosophers. They alone can use
their reason to acquire knowledge of the forms. Pythagorean philosophy of the Pre-Platonic age and some of his contemporaries divided human nature in three
sections i.e reasons, courage and appetite.
Plato seems influenced of these views and he also believed in </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">transnational</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> social set-</span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">corresponding</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> to these three elements in human nature there are
three classes in the social organism-philosopher class or the ruling class
which is the representative of reason; auxiliaries a class of warriors and
defenders of the country is the representative of spirit; and the appetite
instinct of the community which consists of farmers, artisans and are the
lowest rung of the ladder. Simply, Plato holds that the society should be
classified into three functional specialization ( Classes ) i.e. ruling class,
military class and professional class. All the three classes should perform
separate specialized functions. He also says that one person should perform one
function and one should not interfere in the functions of others that is
noninterference. Plato asserts that functional specialization demands from
every social class to specialize itself in the station of life allotted to
it Plato
therefore, engineered and educational scheme that was to produce all the
three required classes necessary for his ideal state. Formation of the classes
was a spontaneous output of his educational scheme.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Geographical
Division:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> In a wide
spread state, it is impossible for a philosopher king to maintain justice.
Therefore, state much be divided in various geographical units with a separate
subordinate executive. So, it is necessary to divide the state in various units
for smooth administration of justice. The subordinate executive will thus be in
position to extend philosopher’s rule and state justice to far-plunged</span><b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">areas. Without geographical division,
central authority will not be in position to provide speedy justice to all.
Therefore, such states will ultimately destroy because justice is the founding
stone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Compensation
according to ability and capability:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> Plato says it is justice
to compensate every individual according to his/her ability and capability. The
most intelligent and learned calls should rule the country and physically
strong and average educated should
defend the state. A philosopher reaches the apex of philosophical
knowledge that distinguishes him from his other fellow beings, so, it is
justice to give him sovereign powers in the state. Disables and handicapped
should not be ignored. For achieving these goals, he expounded the theory of
communism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sexual
Equality:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> Plato says both the sexes are equal and
state should treat them equally. If a dog can watch then a bitch can also
watch. Female must not be mere the decorating peace but her potential must be
utilized for the uplift of state. Justice requires that equal opportunities of
education and job be provided to both the sexes. It is justice to avoid
discrimination on the basis of sex.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mutual
Cooperation:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> Justice is based on mutual assistance and
happy style of life. It is the responsibility of all citizens to pay due
attention to his work. It will intensify unity and all affairs will be justice
and all type of differences may be ended by pacific means. Plato holds that a
balanced society is possible only if there is mutual cooperation among the
three classes of the state. State integration and development demands mutual
cooperation and close interrelation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anti
individualism:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> according to Plato justice is a self-seeking
thing. Plato says detachment of an individual from the society is severe
resistance in the course of justice. One should extend full help and
assistance, in reverse ne will be served. He should try his best to fulfill
other’s needs and in response his needs will be honestly work for others and
consequently, other will work for resultant justice. Plato gives smile to state
and its individuals similarly; an individual without state and fellow beings
cannot remain survives or at least civilized. He says that individuals out of
the state are nothing, and individuals must give all possible server of justice.
The grand total of the people from a huge body in the form of state. So, a
state is a gigantic individual and a person out of a state is nothing. This is
called collectivism and collectivism is another base of his concept of the
justice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Justice
is natural:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> Plato discards and concept of artificial or
external justice but emphasizes on natural justice. He denies any artificial
law of government for impartial guarantee and application of justice and
believes in a natural justice (natural law of justice ) free of partially and
bias.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Criticism/attacks
on Plato’s justice:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Platonic concept of justice is the only practical
item in his philosophy. According to </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">Lawrence</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">C. Wanlass</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> in his book, Gatails
history of political thoughts, Plato’s concept of justice is the crown of his
political thoughts. It is the only theory that is still </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">utilized</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> by the succeeding generations and that is successfully followed by them. All his other
theories are mere </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">Utopians</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">. Although he is an idealist but his theory of
justice reflects realism. This theory has some critical aspects.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vague
theory:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> Plato himself is confused about the concept of
justice, in one side, he stresses upon the non-interference while on the other
hand, advises mutual cooperation and interrelation. On one side, he provides
for sexual equality while on other hand, the real position of woman in his
ideal state is not more than breeding machinery and female is more a mating
partner. He is not clear and straight. There is no sound inter-link in various
components of his thoughts and different ideologies are mutually contradictory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Non-interference:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">
It is not possible for a government not to interfere in people activities. Government enacts and
executes </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">various</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> rules and regulations for individuals. Individuals are accountable
before their government. If there is non-interference and individuals are given
extreme and uncontrolled autonomy, the very need of government and state shall die and such institutions
become useless. Strange that Plato also believes and state communism i.e state
interference in maximum aspects of life. So, his theory of noninterference is
not more than a faction and a source of confusion. His concept of collectivism
means interference in human life. So, collectivism or communism and
non-interference are mutually contradictory concepts. There is conflict in his
thoughts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Geographical
division:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> It is unjust to divide a widespread state in
various units only for smooth maintenance of justice. It will disintegrate a
state into various autonomous sub-states and the centralized control of the
Platonic philosopher king shall cease, </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">geographical</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> division is hazardous for
state integrity and solidarity.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ruling of
the philosopher king:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: Comic Sans MS;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> The idea of communism as
expounded by Plato is also against the concept of natural justice. The two
classes i.e guardians and military have been </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">deprived</span><span style="line-height: 115%;"> of the right of personal
property and family life. Although these two classes sacrifice important
portion of their lives for getting the required qualifications. This is further
injustice that communism is not on the entire society but on the two classes
that further irritates and justice are mutually contradictory.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disables:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">
Plato in his philosophy advises that the disables and handicapped should be
treated and if their disability is nor removed after a complete treatment,
the should be killed for they are burden
on the society. Such and attitude of such a grand philosopher himself kills his
own theory of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Government
law:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;"> Plato denies any sort of government or artificial
law for the application and maintenance of justice. But in modern states an
important organ of government, the judiciary, ensures and protects justice.
Plato is also unclear and and confused
to say that state has no concern with justice while on the other hand he
divides state for the smooth administration of justice.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_GoBack"></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-38233251438015338252012-12-24T09:16:00.000-08:002012-12-24T09:16:00.266-08:00Maulana Abu Ala Maududi<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Maulana Abu Ala Maududi was born on September 25, 1903 in Aurangabad, a well-known town in the former princely state of Hyderabad, Deccan. He was the direct descendant of Khwaja Qutubuddin Maudood Chishti, whose teachings reached Indo-Pakistan subcontinent through his well-known disciple Khwaja Moinuddin of Ajmer. Maududi’s father Syed Ahmad Hasan Maududi was an advocate by profession. He practiced in Meerut and then shifted to Hyderabad, Deccan. He was educated at Aligarh but in later life was much disgusted with the British Imperialism and western culture. He even gave up his legal profession since he found it contrary to his aim of life. Because of his abhorrence for the English way of life in stead of sending his child to the English schools employed tutors to teach him at home, among all classical subjects, the English language and literature, modern disciplines and Arabic, Persian and Urdu languages. <o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">In 1920 his father passed away. The same year he joined the weekly Medinah of Bijnore (U.P.) and then became the editor of Taj of Jabalpore even before he completed his 17th year. Later he shifted to Delhi and joined the weekly Muslim and thereafter became the editor of the daily al-Jamiat, Delhi, which was an outspoken Muslim newspaper representing Islamic viewpoint and bitterly opposed to the British rule as well as Hindu domination. Under his editorship it became the leading newspaper of the Muslims of India. However, he left al-Jamiat when the organizer party behind it showed a preference for the viewpoint of the Indian National Congress. In 1932 he started his own Journal, Tarjuman al-Quran that soon became very popular among the Muslims of the subcontinent — guiding and inspiring them in every phase of their national existence. Dr. Muhammad Iqbal who was one of the earliest subscribers to Tarjuman al-Quran and held Maulana Maududi in highest esteem sought his cooperation in the task of reconstruction and development of Islamic jurisprudence. After an exchange of views, Dr. Iqbal also invited him to come over to Punjab. <o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Maududi has written over 120 books and pamphlets and made over 1000 speeches and press statements of, which about 700 are available on record. During 1920-28 he translated four books one from Arabic and the rest were from English. In 1930, his first major and monumental work was Al-Jihad fil Islam, which was highly appreciated by not less than a sage and poet-philosopher, Dr. Iqbal. Al-Jihad fil Islam is an excellent treatise on the Islamic law of war and peace. His discourses on Islam (Khutabat), Islam main Ibadat ka Tasawwur, Masla-e-Jabr-o-Qadr (The Problem of Free Will and Determination), Sunnat ki Aaeena Hasiyat, Tanqeehat were immensely applauded. His Tafhimat explains into rational way the concepts of Islam. Several editions of Purdah (veil), Haqooq-e-Zojain (Rights and Duties of Married Partners), have been published so far as these are highly popular works among the people. One of the most popular books he wrote is Towards Understanding Islam which is a concise and lucid introduction of Islam expounding the fundamentals of beliefs together with the logic and rationale of the path of Islam. However his main and memorable contribution is translation and commentary of the Holy Quran entitled as ‘Tafhim al-Quran’ in six volumes. He took almost 30 years to complete this work. This tafseer has made a tremendous and far-reaching impact on the contemporary Islamic thinking all over the world. His writings revealed his erudition and scholarship, a deep perception and profoundness of the teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah. His literature imbued with a critical analysis of the western thought and history has provided fresh avenues of thoughts, newer dimensions of moral excellence and dynamic concept of spiritualism. His books have been translated into the major languages of the world like Arabic, English, French, German, Turkish, Persian, Hindi, Swahili, Tamil, Bengali etc.<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">He criticized and showed the hollowness of various ideologies, which had begun to spoil the minds and hearts of the Muslims. Through his journal he appealed to the Muslim intelligentsia to ponder over the real call of Islam and if convinced, concentrate their energies on establishing the Islamic way of life not only in their personal life as individuals but also in their political, economic, social and cultural domains. For that purpose Maududi established an academic and research centre Dar al-Islam in collaboration with Allama Iqbal. The main task was to train competent scholars for producing works of outstanding quality on Islam, to launch a full-fledged movement on the pattern of the earliest Caliphate, and above all to carry out the reconstruction of Islamic thought.<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Maulana Maududi started taking interest in politics around 1920 and took part in the Khilafat Movement and became associated with the tahrik-i-hijrat. In 1940 he launched a new organization under the name of Jamaat-i-Islami. He was elected First Ameer of Jamaat and retained this portfolio till 1972 which he left due to his deteriorating health. He was the greatest Muslim critic of the Congress. He wrote a series of articles, which were widely circulated and later incorporated in a book, Musalman aur maujooda siyasi kashmakash. He vehemently criticized and condemned all the schemes and programs of the Congress aimed to absorb the Muslims of the subcontinent into a common nationhood and lead them astray from the path of Islam. Maulana Maududi analyzed and showed the errors of judgement of Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madni, one of the topmost scholars of Deoband. The Quaid-i-Azam understood the position of the Jamaat and status of Abul Ala Maududi very well. When he was approached to join the Jamaat-e-Islami, he said that there was no conflict between the Jamaat and the League; the one was working for a higher ideal and the other to realize the pressing immediate which, if lost would make the work of the Jamaat impossible. <o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">After the creation of Pakistan in 1947, there were a series of Maulana’s lectures on different systems of Islam, which were broadcast from Radio Pakistan, Lahore. These lectures commenced in January 1948 and continued up to July 6, 1948. From the outset he kept on reminding the leadership to fulfill the promises made to the nation for establishing an Islamic order, and for this purpose a declaration of the objectives of the state in the legal and constitutional form was of paramount importance. In short, he mobilized his efforts on the establishment of a truly Islamic State and society in the country. For that matter he opposed and criticized the policies pursued by the successive governments of Pakistan. As a result he was arrested time and again and put into jail for long periods. It was due to the efforts of Maulana Maududi and his Jamaat that the Objectives Resolution was passed on March 12, 1949. It was also in accord with the Jamaat’s demand that the Objectives Resolution was incorporated in the Constitution as Preamble. <o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">He opposed the Qadiani movement and in his book Qadiani problem he wrote that Qadianis are not Muslims and they have to be treated as a minority. In 1953 when he was sentenced to death by the martial law authorities on the charge of writing a seditious pamphlet on the Qadiani problem, he didn’t file any petition for mercy and cheerfully accepted the punishment. His firmness and faith in Allah astonished the government and his opponents and critics but due to foreign pressure and strong public strain and stress, government was forced to reduce it to life imprisonment and at length it was completely canceled.<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Maulana Maududi toured a lot of countries during the years 1956-1974. These tours enabled the Muslims of those countries to become acquainted with him personally and appreciate his dynamic knowledge and qualities. He lectured in Cairo, Damascus, Amman, Makkah, Jeddah, Kuwait, Rebat, Istanbul, London, New York and Toronto. He also made study tours of Saudi Arabia, Jordon (including Jerusalem), Syria and Egypt in order to probe the geographical and historical phenomena of the places mentioned in the Holy Quran. Maulana was also the member of the Foundation Committee of the Rabitah al-Alam al-Islami, Makkah and the Academy of Research on Islamic Law, Madinah. Maulana Maududi was, indeed, a symbol of Islamic renaissance and an intellectual giant of the modern times. He participated in numerous Muslim international conferences, lectured in the principles cities of most of the Muslim countries and had contacts with Muslim leaders in all parts of the Muslim world.<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">In April 1979, Maulana Abul Ala Maududi had kidney problem, which worsened with the passage of time, and when he also suffered from heart disease, he had to leave for United States for treatment, where his son had also been practicing as a medical specialist. Following a few surgical operations he died on 22nd September 1979, at the age of 76. His funeral ceremony was held in Buffalo but later he was buried at his residence Ichhra in Lahore, When his dead body arrived at Lahore, the road was jam-packed with swarming people up to more than four miles. <o:p></o:p></b><br />
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-75022797800264089462012-12-24T09:13:00.000-08:002012-12-24T09:13:09.880-08:00Allama Iqbal<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Allama Iqbal, great poet-philosopher and active political leader, was born at Sialkot, Punjab, in 1877. He descended from a family of Kashmiri Brahmins, who had embraced Islam about 300 years earlier.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Iqbal received his early education in the traditional maktab. Later he joined the Sialkot Mission School, from where he passed his matriculation examination. In 1897, he obtained his Bachelor of Arts Degree from Government College, Lahore. Two years later, he secured his Masters Degree and was appointed in the Oriental College, Lahore, as a lecturer of history, philosophy and English. He later proceeded to Europe for higher studies. Having obtained a degree at Cambridge, he secured his doctorate at Munich and finally qualified as a barrister.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">He returned to India in 1908. Besides teaching and practicing law, Iqbal continued to write poetry. He resigned from government service in 1911 and took up the task of propagating individual thinking among the Muslims through his poetry.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans'; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f"><v:stroke joinstyle="miter"></v:stroke><v:formulas><v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"></v:f></v:formulas><v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f"></v:path><o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit"></o:lock></v:shapetype><v:shape alt="http://storyofpakistan.com/wp-content/uploads/2003/06/IqbalMuseum.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 237pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 237pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"><v:imagedata o:title="IqbalMuseum" src="file:///C:\Users\ADMINI~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg"></v:imagedata></v:shape></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">By 1928, his reputation as a great Muslim philosopher was solidly established and he was invited to deliver lectures at Hyderabad, Aligarh and Madras. These series of lectures were later published as a book “The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam”. In 1930, Iqbal was invited to preside over the open session of the Muslim League at Allahabad. In his historic Allahabad Address, Iqbal visualized an independent and sovereign state for the Muslims of North-Western India. In 1932, Iqbal came to England as a Muslim delegate to the Third Round Table Conference.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">In later years, when the Quaid had left India and was residing in England, Allama Iqbal wrote to him conveying to him his personal views on political problems and state of affairs of the Indian Muslims, and also persuading him to come back. These letters are dated from June 1936 to November 1937. This series of correspondence is now a part of important historic documents concerning Pakistan’s struggle for freedom.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">On April 21, 1938, the great Muslim poet-philosopher and champion of the Muslim cause, passed away. He lies buried next to the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-6749012096759180152012-12-24T09:10:00.000-08:002012-12-24T09:10:01.549-08:00Syed Jamal ud din afghani<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">One of the most influential Muslims with towering personality and sparkling ideology, Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani was the harbinger of Muslim Renaissance in the 19th century. He was the principal figure in awakening Islamic political sentiments and social reforms in India, Persia, Afghanistan, Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. He was an intellectual, a versatile genius, a wandering missionary, an impressive interpreter of the Holy Quran and an orator of the highest caliber who brought about a universal awakening throughout the world of Islam. He moved about in the capitals of Muslim countries — lecturing, discussing and writing about his mission, leaving behind him a band of zealous workers or his disciples who continued his work even after his death. Several movements of religious revival and social reform owe their origin to this singular personality. <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Syed Jamaluddin was born in 1838. He was Afghani because of his place of birth at Asadabad in Afghanistan. He was Syed due to his family lineage that traced back to Imam Hussain. His father Syed Safdar, a descendent of Syed Ali Al-Tirmizi, had a command over wide range of subject, while his mother Sakina begum was a religious lady. Even at the early age of eight years, Jamaluddin exhibited extraordinary intelligence. Before he was 18, he was well versed in almost all the branches of Islamic learning in addition to philosophy, jurisprudence, history, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, general sciences, mysticism, astronomy and astrology. His learning was encyclopedic and his genius was versatile. Journey proved to be his best coach. His ceaseless journey around the globe and revolutionary spirit enabled Jamaluddin Afghani to study the socio-political problems of the Muslims and ignite the spirit of Muslim fraternity and unity against the western domination. <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">He started his journey from Iran and came to India in 1856, at the age of eighteen. He spent a year in Delhi and felt the political surge of the subcontinent that was soon to erupt in the Sepoy Uprising of 1857 in which the Indians tried their utmost to throw off the alien yoke. From India, Syed Jamaluddin visited Arabia to perform Hajj and returned to Afghanistan in 1858. He was employed by Amir Dost Muhammed. His talents propelled him to the forefront of the Afghan hierarchy. After the death of Dost Muhammed when his brother Mohammed Azam became the Amir, he appointed Jamaluddin as his prime minister. In 1869, Jamaluddin fell out of favor with the Amir and left Kabul for India. In Delhi, he received the red carpet treatment from British officials, who were at the same time careful not to let him meet the principal Indian Muslim leaders. The same year he visited Cairo on his way to Istanbul where his fame had preceded him. He was elected to the Turkish Academy and got the membership of Danish Usmania organization. Since his speeches on the burning issue of that age and rational interpretation of the Quran and the Sunnah were disapproved by the Turkish ulama, he was expelled from Istanbul in 1871. However, during his stay in Turkey, he remained very popular with many young Turks and intellectuals who came under his influence. From Turkey he reached Cairo where he came into contact with the professors and students of Al-Azhar, who were immensely impressed by his deep erudition and high scholarship. He left an abiding impression of his progressive ideas on the intelligentsia of Egypt which, later appeared in the person of Muhammad Abduh. Jamaluddin had a major role in the events that led to the overthrow of Khedive Ismail Pasha who had brought Egypt to its knees through his extravagance. European influence increased, and Jamaluddin was at the head of the Young Egyptian Movement and the nationalist uprising under Torabi Pasha (1881) that sought to expel the Europeans from Egypt. Due to suspicion of Britain and France the government of Egypt ordered him to leave Cairo immediately. After a stay of about eight years in Egypt, Jamaludin Afghani left Cairo in March, 1879, and arrived in Hyderabad Deccan (India). Here he wrote his famous treatise, “Refutation of the Materialists”, which created a stir in the materialistic world. He also started a magazine that propagated his anti-western thought but due to the war between Egypt and Britain, he was kept for the most time under house arrest. In India too he inspired so many young Indian Muslims like Sir Salar Jang Bahadur and Syed Hussain Bilgrami who wanted an end of British Raj in India. From India, Jamaluddin embarked on a journey through Europe and resided for many years in London, Paris and St. Petersburg. He met the English author and the political leader Wilfrid Scawen Blunt who became his lifelong friend. During In Paris he met his old friend Muhammed Abduh who had been exiled from Egypt. The two outstanding celebrities of the Muslim World started their famous Arabic Journal “Al Urwat-ul-Wuthqa”, from Paris, It was an anti-British organ, whose scathing criticism and fiery articles created a furore in the imperialist circles and its entry was banned in India. Its expositions of the imperialist designs in the Muslim east terrified the western imperialists who viewed with alarm its growing popularity in the Arabic speaking world. Through his friend Blunt he had talk with Randolph Churchill and did his best to influence him. In St. Petersburg, he met Shah Nasiruddin Qaisar, the ruler of Persia. A little later, the Shah met Jamaluddin Jamaluddin in Munich, Germany, for the second time. He was so much impressed with his dynamic personality that he offered him the exalted position of premiership of Persia. Jamaluddin hesitated, but yielded due to extreme persuasion of the Shah and arrived in Persia along with the Shah. But his growing esteem and popularity among the intelligentsia and Persian masses created apprehension and jealousy in the mind of the ruler. Being a sensitive person, Jamaluddin smelled this apprehension and sought permission to leave the country. But he was not allowed to do so. Now there was hardly any course left to him. He openly criticized Shah Nasiruddin Qaisar and his reign of terror. He was arrested and deported from Persia. But the fire, which he had kindled in Persia, culminated in the assassination of the Shah on May 1, 1895. <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Later he came to Iran but was expelled from Iran. He went to Moscow, in the hope to get an alliance of the Czar against British Imperialism. It was through his influence that the Muslims in Russia were permitted to print the Holy Quran and other religious books, whose publication was earlier banned in Czarist Russia.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Then Syed arrived once again in Istanbul to fulfill his dreams of Pan Islamism. He was warmly received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II who also nourished the ideas of uniting Muslims of the world. But death visited him on March 8, 1897, and his dreams of independent united Muslim world did not come true in his life. The main goal of Syed Jamaluddin Afghani was to unite the Islamic world under a single caliph resident in Istanbul. Towards this end, he sought a rapprochement between the Ottoman Empire and Persia, working to have the Shah recognize the Ottoman Sultan as the Caliph of all Muslims, while the Caliph recognized the Shah as the sovereign of all Shi’as. He wrote to the leading theologians of Karbala, Tabriz and Tehran, passionately arguing his case and was partially successful in bringing them to his point of view. However, the rapprochement did not take place due to the political turbulence in Persia. Secondly, he sought to revive Islam to make it responsive, as he saw it, to the needs of the age. <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">As a man, Jamaluddin was humble, courteous, hard working and amicable. He slept little, working for more than 18 hours a day. He received those who came to visit him with great courtesy. About Jamaluddin, Edward G. Browne, author of the well known work, A Literary History of Persia writes: “the humblest as much as the most distinguished, but was very chary of paying visits, especially to persons of high ranks, In speech, he was eloquent, always expressing himself in choice language, and avoiding colloquial and vulgar idioms, but carefully adopting his words to the capacity of his hearers. As a public speaker he had hardly a rival in the east.” Regarding his other qualities Browne states: `He was abstemious in his life, caring little for the things of this world, bold and fearless in face of danger, frank and genial but hot tempered, affable towards all but independent in his dealings with the great. His intellectual powers and his quick insight and discernment were equally remarkable so that he seemed able to read men’s thoughts before they had spoken.’ About his versatility Browne writes: “His knowledge was extensive, and he was specially versed in ancient philosophy, the philosophy of history, the history and civilization of Islam. He learnt French in three months without a master, sufficiently well to read and translate…He knew the Arabic, Turkish, Persian and Afghani languages together with a little English and Russian. He was a voracious reader of Arabic and Persian books. He appears never to have married, and was indifferent to female charms.” “It was really wonderful”, writes Browne, “that a wandering scholar, with no material resources save only an eloquent tongue and a pen, literally made kings tremble on their thrones and defeated the well-laid plans of statesmen by setting in motion forces which he knew how to evoke and with which secular politicians, both European and Asiatic, had utterly failed to reckon.” Another great thinker of the East, Dr Iqbal, pays glowing tributes to Jamaluddin Afghani when he says: “A perfect master of nearly all the Muslim languages of the world and endowed with the most winning eloquence, his restless soul migrated from one Muslim country to another, influencing some of the most prominent men in Iran, Egypt and Turkey. Some of the greatest theologians of our time, such as Mufti Muhammad Abduh of Egypt, were his disciples. He wrote little, spoke much and thereby transformed into miniature Jamaluddins all those who came into contact with him…He never claimed to be a prophet or a renewer; yet no man in our time has stirred the soul of Islam more deeply than him. His spirit is still working in the world of Islam and no one knows where it will end.”<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-7973795516316761182012-12-24T09:06:00.003-08:002012-12-24T09:06:37.067-08:00Shah Wali Ullah<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Shah Wali Ullah Muhaddis Dehlvi was born on February 21, 1703 at Delhi, just when the reign of Aurangzeb was nearing its end. He was named Qutb-ud-Din, but is better known by his title of Wali Ullah, given to him by virtue of his goodness and piety. His father, Shah Abdul Rahim, was a sufi and theologian of great repute. He was the founding member and teacher of the Madrasa-i-Rahimiyah in Delhi. Shah Abdul Rahim was associated with the completion of the famous Islamic legal text, Fatawa-i-Alamgiri.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Shah Wali Ullah received his academic and spiritual education from his father. He memorized the Holy Quran and gained knowledge of Tafseer, Hadith, spiritualism, mysticism, metaphysics, logic, and Ilm-ul-Kalam while still in his boyhood. After mastering these subjects, he turned his attention to the Sahih Bukhari and Islamic Jurisprudence. He also studied medicine and tibb. After acquiring this knowledge, he taught at his father’s Madrasa for 12 years. He left for Arabia in 1730 for higher education. During his stay in Arabia, he was influenced by Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim, a renowned scholar of the time. He studied in Medina for 14 years, where he obtained his Sanad in Hadith. It is believed that while Shah Wali Ullah was in Arabia, he was blessed with a vision of the Holy Prophet (SAW), and tidings that he would be influential in organizing the reform of Muslims in India.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">By the time he returned to Delhi in July 1732, the decline in Mughal fortunes had started. The social, political, economic and religious conditions of the Muslims were very poor. On his return to India, he not only identified the causes for the decline of the Muslims, but also pointed out the remedies. Shah Wali Ullah believed that the various problems Muslims faced were due to their ignorance about Islam and the Holy Quran. He, therefore, personally trained a number of students who were entrusted with the task of spreading Islam. In order to promulgate the teachings of Islam and make the Holy Quran more accessible to the people, he translated the Quran to Persian, the main and common language of the people at that time. He also tried to reduce the various differences of many a sectarian group prevailing at that time.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Shah Wali Ullah was a prolific writer and wrote extensively on Fiqh and Hadith. He eventually wrote 51 books; 23 in Arabic and 28 in Persian. Among his famous works are the Hujjat-ullah-il-Balighah and Izalat-ul-Khifa.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Droid Sans';">Shah Wali Ullah also made efforts for the political uplift of Muslims of India. He wrote to Ahmad Shah Abdali to help the Muslims of India in crushing the Marhattas, who were a constant threat to the crumbling Mughal Empire. In 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali, in response to Shah Wali Ullah’s call, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Marhattas at Panipat. Shah Wali Ullah was responsible for awakening in the community the desire to regain its moral fervor and maintain its purity. He was laid to rest in 1762. His sons and followers ably continued his work and noble mission.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-17437920779019898782012-12-24T08:58:00.001-08:002012-12-24T08:58:56.793-08:00Ibn Taymiyyah <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">As for the author, his calibre and prestige goes without saying. He is the great scholar, <i>Shaykh ul-Islam</i> Ibn Taymiyyah, <i>may Allah have mercy upon him</i>. Scholars of Islam acknowledge his astonishing excellence in all fields of knowledge - <i>and Allah favours whom He chooses</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His name is Ahmad ibn 'Abdul-Halim ibn 'Abdis-Salam. His <i>kunyah</i> is Abu'l-'Abbas and he is also referred to as Taqi ad-Din. As for his most common appellation: Ibn Taymiyyah, scholars give different accounts for why he was referred to by this term. Some say that one of his ancestors performed <i>Hajj</i> through the route of Tayma and he saw a maid (there) who had came out of a tent, when he returned (to his homeland) he found that his wife had given birth to a daughter and they raised her up to him, whereupon he said: "O Taymiyyah, O Taymiyyah" i.e., she resembled the maid he had seen at Tayma. It is also said that the mother of his grandfather Muhammad, was named Taymiyyah and thus he came to be ascribed to her1
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. He was born in Harran, an old city within the Arabian Peninsula between Sham2
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and Iraq, on the tenth or the twelfth of the month Rabi' al-Awwal in the year 661H. He later fled at a young age with his family to Damascus because of the terrible conditions of his homeland and those surrounding it as a result of the occupation by the Tartars.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His family was renowned for its knowledge and stature; both his father and grandfather were people of scholarly repute. Three of his brothers were also known for their knowledge and excellence: 'Abdur-Rahman, 'Abdullah and his half-brother, Muhammad.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His Early Life<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Taymiyyah was brought up, cared for and nurtured by his father. He obtained knowledge from him and the other <i>shayukh</i> of his era. He did not confine himself to the knowledge of those around him but also directed his attention to the works of the scholars before his time by way of perusal and memorisation.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The following observations can be drawn from his early life:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The strength of his memory and speed of his comprehension.3
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His strict observance of time from an early age4
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, which later led the rest of his life to be filled with actions such as <i>jihad</i>, teaching, commanding the good, forbidding the evil, writing books and letters and refuting opponents.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The scope and strength of his effect and arguments. A Jew accepted Islam at his hands whilst he was still very young.5
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He started issuing legal verdicts at the age of nineteen6
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and started teaching in <i>Dar al-Hadith as-Sukriyyah</i> when he was approximately 22 years of age.7
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His initial sources of knowledge centered around diverse sciences like: <i>Tafsir</i>; Sciences of the <i>Qur'an</i>; the <i>Sunnah</i>; the Six books; <i>Musnad Imam Ahmad</i>; <i>Sunan ad-Darimi</i>; <i>Mu'jam at-Tabarani</i>; Sciences of <i>Hadith</i> and narrators; Fiqh and it's <i>Usul</i>; <i>Usul ad-Din</i> and sects; language; writing; mathematics; history and other subjects like astronomy, medicine and engineering. This is quite evident from examining the works he later authored; any topic he tackled and wrote about leaves the reader thinking that Ibn Taymiyyah was a specialist in that particular field.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His Teachers<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He took his knowledge from a great number of scholars8
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and he himself mentioned a number of them as related by Adh-Dhahabi directly from him.9
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This particular chronicle of <i>shayukh</i> includes forty male scholars and four female scholars. The total number of scholars whom he took knowledge from exceeds two hundred.10
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The following is a selection of some of his teachers:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu'l-'Abbas Ahmad ibn 'Abd ad-Da'im al-Maqdasi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu Muhammad Isma'il ibn Ibrahim at-Tanukhi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu'l-'Abbas al-Mu'ammil ibn Muhammad al-Balisi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr ibn Sulayman al-'Amiri<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu'l-Faraj 'Abdur-Rahman ibn Sulayman al-Baghdadi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Sharaf ad-Din al-Maqdasi, Ahmad ibn Ahmad ash-Shafi'i<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Muhammad ibn 'Abdul-Qawi al-Maqdasi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Taqi ad-Din al-Wasiti, Ibrahim ibn 'Ali as-Salihi al-Hanbali<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His paternal aunt, Sitt ad-Dar bint 'Abdus-Salam ibn Taymiyyah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The <i>Jihad</i> and Actions of Ibn Taymiyyah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The life of Ibn Taymiyyah was distinguished with the tremendous qualities of ordering the good, forbidding the evil and performing <i>Jihad</i> for the cause of Allah, He combined his roles of teaching, issuing legal verdicts and writing with actions of the highest magnitude. His whole life was in fact filled with jihad. With a very brief examination of his life in this area we can point out at a number of incidents:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; text-transform: uppercase;">Ordering the Good and Forbidding the Evil<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His destruction of idols and places11
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that were worshipped besides Allah and prevention of people from visiting such places:12
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This practical aspect was preceded by two stages: the first, by explaining the reality of these shrines in that many of them were fabricated and that many of the graves that were glorified and journeyed to were in fact not even those of whom they were attributed to.13
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The second, by way of intellectual discourse through direct debates, books and letters and explaining the <i>shirk</i> and innovations connected to such acts and also through presenting the opinions of opponents and refuting their arguments.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His stance against the Christians: He wrote a letter to the then Christian King of Cyprus inviting him to Islam and exposing the lies and corruption being committed by the priests and monks whilst they knew fully well that they were upon falsehood. After mentioning the devoutness of the King, his love for knowledge and good conduct towards the people, Ibn Taymiyyah then invited him to embrace Islam and adopt the correct belief. He did this in a gentle and exemplary manner addressing his intellect, and entrusted him to behave benevolently towards the Muslims in Cyprus, not to strive to change the religion of a single one of them.14
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He also engaged in debates with Christians, some of which he himself referred to in his book <i>Al-Jawab as-Sahih</i>.15
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He took many stances against the <i>Sufiyyah</i>. A famous one was against the <i>Bata 'Ihiyyah</i>.16
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He refuted them and exposed their satanic behaviour such as entering into fire and emerging unharmed and claiming that this was an indication of their miraculous nature. He explained that even if they did this or flew in the air it would not be an evidence that could be used to declare their violations of the <i>Shari'ah</i> to be correct.17
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He challenged them by proposing to also enter into the fire with them on the condition that they first wash themselves with vinegar and hot water. Ultimately, they were exposed and defeated and they agreed to a complete adherence to the Book and <i>Sunnah</i>.18
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In the year 699H, he and a number of his companions rose against some taverns; they broke their utensils, spilt their wine and chastised a number of them, which caused the people to come out and rejoice at this.19
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</span></b><b><sup><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #cc0000; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">,</span></sup></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">20
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">As for his stances against the rulers, they were famous. One of the well-known ones was his stance against Qazan, the ruler of the Tartars. At a time when the Tartars commanded awe and authority, he spoke to the ruler with strong words concerning their actions, spread of corruption and infringement of the sanctities of the Muslims whilst they themselves claimed to be Muslims.21
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Likewise, his strong words with Sultan an-Nasir, convinced the Sultan to refrain from pursuing a course of action which was impermissible.22
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Segoe UI';"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Taymiyyah also had an effect in causing the rulers to assume their role of commanding the good and forbidding the evil. An example of this is when bribery became widespread and became an influencing factor in holding offices and even in abolishing capital punishment in the year 712H, na official decree was sent to Damascus, from the Sultan, citing that no one should be granted a post or office through money or bribery and that the killer is to be punished by the law of the <i>Shari'ah</i>; this decree emanated through the advice and consultation of Ibn Taymiyyah.23
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">These are some examples that demonstrate the efforts of Ibn Taymiyyah, <i>may Allah have mercy upon him</i>, in ordering the good and forbidding the evil.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">One also notices when reading his biography that Ibn Taymiyyah had the assistance of a number of companions in carrying out such tasks.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; text-transform: uppercase;">His <i>Jihad</i> Against the Tartars<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Taymiyyah played a great role in establishing jihad against the Tartars. He clarified the reality of their condition and showed that it was an obligation to fight them, firstly, because of the consensus of the scholars on the obligation of fighting any group that openly rejects and resists the laws of Islam and secondly, explaining that this ruling is applicable to the Tartars because of their condition.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He elucidated the causes for victory and explained that it was not impossible or difficult to achieve victory over them if the Muslims adopted the causes that achieve victory such as judging by the <i>Shari'ah</i>, putting an end to oppression, spreading justice and being sincere in one's intention when performing <i>jihad</i> in Allah's cause.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">We find Ibn Taymiyyah ordering the people in the battle of Shaqhab, which took place in the month of Ramadhan, to break fast in emulation of the guidance of the Prophet, <i>sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam</i>. Again, when Ibn Taymiyyah encouraged the Sultan to perform <i>jihad</i>, the Sultan asked him to take position by his side to which Ibn Taymiyyah replied: "The <i>Sunnah</i> is for each man to stand behind the flag of his people and we are from Sham so we will only stand with them."24
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">After performing <i>jihad</i> against the Tartars and defeating them, we see Ibn Taymiyyah analysing the battles, expounding upon the beneficial lessons that can be derived from them and illustrating the areas of similarity between these battles against the Tartars and the battles of the Prophet, <i>sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam</i>.25
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; text-transform: uppercase;">His <i>Jihad</i> Against the Christians and <i>Rafidah</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The majority of references do not make mention of Ibn Taymiyyah's role in <i>jihad</i> against the Christians before their final expulsion from Sham. Al-Bazzar however, does mention the following when discussing the bravery and strength of heart of Ibn Taymiyyah: "They relate that they saw of him at the conquest of 'Akkah, such a display of bravery that was beyond description. They say that he was a reason behind it's seizure by the Muslims because of his deeds, advice and sharp perception."26
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">As for the <i>Rafidah</i>, they fortified themselves in the mountains of Al-Jard and Al-Kasrawaniyyin. Ibn Taymiyyah headed for them in the year 704H with a group of his companions and requested a number of them to repent and they enjoined the laws of Islam upon them. In the beginning of the year 705H, Ibn Taymiyyah went to battle with a brigade and the deputy Sultan of Sham and Allah aided them over the <i>Rafidah</i>.27
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">These are examples of the <i>jihad</i> of Ibn Taymiyyah, <i>may Allah have mercy upon him</i>, and his unification of knowledge with action.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The Status and Rank of Ibn Taymiyyah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Shaykh ul-Islam</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Ibn Taymiyyah held a lofty status amongst the scholars of his time. This was for a number of reasons, such as his ability to clarify matters that were vague to the other scholars of his time, such as the issue of fighting the Tartars and the issue of the wealth obtained from some of the sects of the <i>Rafidah</i>.28
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Ibn Taymiyyah expounded upon these matters and clarified them to the people.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In the year 701H, a Jew came from Khaybar alleging that he had a letter from the Messenger of Allah, <i>sallallahu 'alayhi wa sallam</i>, which abrogated the <i>Jizyah</i> that the Jews had to pay to the Muslims. Ibn Taymiyyah exposed his lies and critically scrutinised and invalidated the letter from a <i>hadith</i> point of view and relying upon historical knowledge.29
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Whilst Ibn Taymiyyah was in prison in Cairo, Ibn Kathir mentions: "Difficult legal questions used to be sent to him from governors and specific people, which the Jurists could not deal with, and he would respond from the Book and <i>Sunnah</i> in a way that would bewilder the minds."30
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Another reason was his role in <i>jihad</i>; he was not only a brave soldier but also an instructor and leader. He was sought after for advice and military strategy.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Most importantly, one of the greatest causes behind his exalted rank amidst the scholars and common folk alike was his comprehensive knowledge. When he gave a lecture; delivered a sermon; gave a legal ruling; wrote a letter or authored a book in any field, he would produce a level of knowledge that far excelled the other scholars of his time. This is why Ibn Taymiyyah became a reference point amongst the people. Whenever two people fell into dispute over a matter - and they could be from the people of knowledge and students alike as noticed from some questions - his opinion would be the deciding factor.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The Praise of the Scholars for Ibn Taymiyyah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hafidh</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Adh-Dhahabi said: "He is far greater than the likes of me to inform on his qualities. If I were made to swear (by Allah) by the corner (of the <i>Ka'bah</i>) and the place (of Ibrahim), I would swear that I have not seen with my two eyes the like of him and by Allah, he himself has not seen his own like in knowledge."31
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hafidh</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Al-Mizzi said: "I have not seen the like of him and nor have seen the like of himself. I have not seen one more knowledgeable of the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Messenger and more compliant to it than him."32
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Imam</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Ibn Daqiq al-'Eid said: "When I met Ibn Taymiyyah, I saw a person who had all the types of knowledge between his eyes: he would take of it what he desired and leave of it what he desired."33
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hafidh</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, <i>may Allah have mercy upon him</i>, mentioned in the context of refuting the one who opposed that Ibn Taymiyyah be termed '<i>Shaykh ul-Islam</i>': "The acclaim of Taqi ad-Din is more renown than that of the Sun and titling him <i>Shaykh ul-Islam</i> of his era remains until our time upon the virtuous tongues. It will continue tomorrow just as it was yesterday. No one refutes this but a person who is ignorant of his prestige or one who turns away from equity."34
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Shaykh</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Kamal ad-Din Ibn az-Zamlakani, who debated with Ibn Taymiyyah on more than one occasion, said: "Whenever he was questioned on a particular field of knowledge, the one who witnessed and heard (the answer) concluded that he had no knowledge of any other field and that no one possessed such as his knowledge. The jurists of all groups, whenever they sat with him, they would benefit from him regarding their own schools of thought in areas they previously were unaware of. It is not known that he debated anyone whereby the discussion carne to a standstill or that whenever he spoke on about a particular field of knowledge - whether it be related to the sciences of the <i>Shari'ah</i> or else - that he would not then excel the specialists of that field and those who are affiliated to it."35
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He also said: "The prerequisites of <i>ijtihad</i> were combined within him in the way they should be he was very proficient in authoring very well and in excelling in expression, arrangement, classification and explanation."36
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hafidh</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Ibn Kathir said " ... It was rare for him to he hear something and not memorise it and he occupied himself with the sciences. He was intelligent and had committed much to memory and thus, became an <i>Imam</i> in <i>tafsir</i> and what pertained to it. He had (comprehensive) knowledge of <i>fiqh</i>; it was said that he had more knowledgeable of the <i>fiqh</i> of the <i>madhahib</i> then the followers of those very same <i>madhahib</i> in his time and other times. He was fully aware of the different opinions of the scholars. He was a scholar in <i>Usul</i>, the branches of the religion, grammar, the language and other textual and intellectual sciences. He was never overcome in a sitting and no noble (scholar) would speak to him on a particular science except that he thought that this science was the specialty of Ibn Taymiyyah and he would see him as being well-versed in it and having perfected it ... As for <i>hadith</i> then he was the carrier of its flag, a <i>hafidh</i> in <i>hadith</i>, and able to distinguish the weak from the strong, fully acquainted with the narrators and being proficient in this ... "37
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu Hayyan al-Andalusi said: "By Allah, my two eyes have never seen the like of Ibn Taymiyyah."38
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hafidh</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Badr ad-Din al-'Ayni al-Hanafi said: "He is the <i>Imam</i>, the noble, the masterful, the pious, the pure, the devout, the proficient in the two sciences of <i>hadith</i> and <i>tafsir</i>, <i>fiqh</i> and the two fundamentals (i.e., the Book and <i>Sunnah</i>) with determination and precision. He is the sharp sword against the innovators, the authority, who established the matters of the religion and the great commander of the good and forbidder of evil. He possessed (noble) concern, bravery and embarked upon that which frightened and deterred. He was of much remembrance, fasting, prayer and worship."39
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The Ordeals and Imprisonment of Ibn Taymiyyah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Taymiyyah was put through many trials throughout his life and it is extremely difficult to deal with them and present them properly in this brief discussion on him so I will merely list the more famous ones.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His ordeal because of his treatise <i>Al-Hamawiyyah</i> in the year 698H.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His ordeal because of specific verdicts related to divorce and resultant imprisonment in the year 720H, for five months.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His ordeal because of his legal verdict banning the undertaking of journeys specifically to visit graves and resultant imprisonment in the year 726H until he passed away, <i>may Allah have mercy upon him</i>, in the year 728H.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Taymiyyah's response to these ordeals was always a positive one which turned these trials and tribulations - <i>by the favour of Allah</i> - into great opportunities for increasing <i>iman</i> and reacting positively in knowledge and action. His summons to Egypt, for example, led him to debate and thoroughly deal with the innovators who had spread their beliefs throughout the region. His role in prison was another manifestation of this blessing, such as his efforts in educating the prisoners and nurturing them to the extent that the dissemination of knowledge and religion within the prison excelled certain institutions outside the prison. This happened in both Egypt and Alexandria. His decision to remain in Egypt after being released, was as he mentioned in a letter40
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to his mother, because of matters necessary to religion and the world. This brought about much goodness in aiding the <i>Sunnah</i> and suppressing innovations. One of the greatest positive results was the books and papers he wrote and authored within prison. He also pardoned those who oppressed him, even when Ibn Taymiyyah had the opportunity to exact revenge. One of his opponents, Ibn al-Makhluf, the <i>Maliki</i> Judge said: "We did not see the likes of Ibn Taymiyyah; we incited against him but were not able to overpower him, when he was able to overpower us, he instead pardoned us and pleaded on our behalf."41
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Another positive outcome was that these ordeals in themselves were a reason for the widespread circulation of Ibn Taymiyyah's works.42
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His Students<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He had many students43
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and those that were affected by him are countless, some of his students were:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, (d. 751H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Adh-Dhahabi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, (d. 748H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Mizzi, Yusuf ibn 'Abdur-Rahman, (d. 742H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Kathir, Isma'il ibn 'Umar, (d. 774)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn 'Abdil-Hadi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, (d. 744H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Bazzar, 'Umar ibn 'Ali, (d. 749)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Qadi al-Jabal, Ahmad ibn Hasan, (d. 771H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Fadlillah al-'Amri, Ahmad ibn Yahya, (d. 749H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Muhammad ibn al-Manja ibn 'Uthman at-Tanukhi, (d. 724H)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Yusuf ibn 'Abdul-Mahmud ibn 'Abdis-Salam al-Batti, (d. 728).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His Works<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The existing works of Ibn Taymiyyah are great in number, despite the fact that a proportion of his works have perished.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He was a very quick writer. His brother 'Abdullah said: "Allah blessed him with the ability to write quickly and he used to write from memory without copying."44
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Ibn Taymiyyah had a scribe who used to make copies of his work because of the fact that he used to write so fast. There was a person known as 'Abdullah ibn Rashiq al-Maghrabi who used to write the works of the <i>Shaykh</i>; Ibn Kathir says of him: "He could make out the handwriting of the Shaykh better than the Shaykh himself."45
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He used to take a lot of time out to review his works as he did when he came out of prison because of the issue of divorce - in the year 721H.46
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After his return to Sham in the year 712H, he dedicated a lot of time to authoring lengthy works.47
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He would pay great attention to the writings that used to be attributed to him;48
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it seems that the constant fabrication about him by his enemies and the twisting of his words was a reason for this.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He would not delay in answering questions that came to him and he authored and wrote from his memory while in prison.49
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Some of his works are:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Dar Ta'arud al-'Aql wa'n-Naql</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Istiqamah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Iqtida' as-Sirat al-Mustaqim li Mukhalafah Ashab al-Jahim</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Naqd Maratib al-Ijma'</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">As-Sarim al-Maslul 'ala Shatim ar-Rasul</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Jawab as-Sahih li man baddala Din al-Masih</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ar-Rad 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ar-Rad 'ala al-'Akhnan'i</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Naqd at-Ta'sis</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">An-Nubuwat</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">There are so many other works that have been included in <i>Majmu' al-Fatawa</i>, which is a compilation of his writings and verdicts put together by Ibn Qasim and his son. These include:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Qa'idah fi Tawhid al-Uluhiyyah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Wasitah bayn al-Haqq wa'l-Khalq</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Qa'idah Jalilah fi't-Tawassul wa'l-Wasilah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ar-Radd al-Aqwan 'ala ma fi Fusus al-Hikam</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ar-Risalah at-Tadmuriyyah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 160%; margin: 0in 0in 3.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-'Aqidah al-Wasitiyyah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 160%; margin: 0in 0in 3.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Wasiyyah al-Kubra</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hamawiyyah al-Kubra</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Sharh Hadith an-Nuzul</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Kitab al-Iman</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Amrad al-Qulub wa Shifa'uha</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-'Ubudiyyah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">50
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Wasiyyah as-Sughra</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Furqan bayna Awliya' ar-Rahman wa Awliya' ash-Shaytan</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 160%; margin: 0in 0in 3.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Furqan bayna al-Haqq wa'l-Batil</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Muqaddimah fi Usul at-Tafsir</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Tafsir Surah al-Ikhlas</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Raf' al-Malam 'an al-A'immah al-A'lam</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Hisbah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 160%; margin: 0in 0in 3.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Amr bi'l-Ma'ruf wa'n-Nahy 'an al-Munkar</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">As-Siyasah ash-Shar'iyyah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 160%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Madhalim al-Mushtarakah</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">A Discussion on His Personal State and Worship of His Lord<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">It is appropriate here to discuss this aspect of Ibn Taymiyyah's life, mainly to exhibit that the discussion he presents in his book does not emanate from one who is void of enacting such descriptions found within this discourse and that it does not merely derive from his academic knowledge and excellence.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In fact, one who reads his biography will realise that Ibn Taymiyyah had a great attachment to his Lord which manifested in his worship and strong reliance on Him, this is how we deem him to be and we do not put anyone's commendation in front of Allah's.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Those who wrote his biography discussed the worship, ascetism, piety, selflessness, humility and generosity he was famous for.51
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn al-Qayyim says of Ibn Taymiyyah's remembrance of his Lord: "I heard Shaykul-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah, may Allah sanctify his soul, say, 'Remembrance to the heart is like water to fish. What will be the state of the fish if it becomes seperated from the water?' ... I once attended <i>fajr</i> prayer with <i>Shaykh ul-Islam</i> Ibn Taymiyyah, he then sat and remembered Allah until it was nearly midday. He then turned around and said to me, 'This is my early morning meal, if I do not take this breakfast, my strength will drop.' "52
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">A great manifestation of his worship was in his genuine reliance upon his Lord and his belief in the decree of Allah. At times when he was subjected to the severest forms of treatment, he had the greatest reliance upon his Lord. When the news of his expulsion to Alexandria came to him and it was said to him: "They are plotting to kill you, expel or imprison you." He replied: "If they kill me it will be a <i>shahadah</i> for me. If they expel me, it will be a <i>hijrah</i> for me; if they expel me to Cyprus, I will call its people to Allah so that they answer me. If they imprison me, it will be a place of worship for me."53
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn al-Qayyim also says: "He used to say frequently in prostration when imprisoned, 'O Allah, assist me to remember you, to be grateful to you and to worship your properly.' and he said to me once, 'The one who is (truly) imprisoned is the one whose heart is imprisoned from Allah and the captivated one is the one whose desires have enslaved him.' "54
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">His Death, <i>May Allah Have Mercy Upon Him</i><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">When he was ultimately banned from having any books, papers and pens during the latter stage of his final imprisonment, Ibn Taymiyyah devoted all of his time to worship and reciting the <i>Qur'an</i>. He remained in this state for a short period of time until he passed away on the twentieth of Dhul-Qa'dah of the year 728H. He fell sick for the few days that led to his death.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">This came as an enormous shock to the people and they turned out in enormous numbers.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Historians regards this as one of those rare funerals and they compare it to the funeral of <i>Imam</i> Ahmad ibn Hanbal, <i>may Allah have mercy upon him</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Taymiyyah died at a time when he was imprisoned, with resentment from the Sultan and when may of the jurists and <i>Sufiyyah</i> were mentioning many things about him. However, despite that, his funeral was one witnessed by many and was famous.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Al-Bazzar says: "Once the people had heard of his death, not a single person wanted to be in Damascus who was able to attend the prayer and wanted to, remained until he appeared and took time out for it. As a result, the markets in Damascus were closed and all transactions of livelihood were stopped. Governors, heads, scholars, jurists came out. They say that none of the majority of the people failed to turn up, according to my knowledge - except three individuals; they were well known for their enmity for Ibn Taymiyyah and thus, hid away from the people out of fear for their lives."55
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Kathir mentions that the deputy Sultan was absent and the State was perplexed as to what it should do. Then the deputy of the prison came to give his condolences and sat by Ibn Taymiyyah. He opened the entrance for those of his close companions and beloved people to enter upon him. They sat by him, cried and praised him.56
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"Then they started to wash the Shaykh ... they only let those who helped in the washing to remain by him. Amongst them was our <i>Shaykh al-Hafidh</i> Al-Mizzee and a group of senior righteous and good people; people of knowledge and <i>iman</i> ... then they proceeded with him to Jami' al-Umawi. There was so many people in front of his <i>janazah</i>, behind it, to it's right and to it's left. None but Allah could enumerate them, then one shouted out, 'This is how the <i>janazah</i> of the Imams of the <i>Sunnah</i> are to be!' At that, the people, started to cry... when the <i>adhan</i> of <i>dhuhr</i> was given they prayed after it straight away against the usual norm. Once they finished prayer, the deputy <i>khatib</i> came out - as the main <i>khatib</i> was absent and in Egypt - and he led the prayer over Ibn Taymiyyah ... Then the people poured out from everywhere and all the doors of the <i>Jam'i</i> ... and they assembled at Al-Khayl market."57
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<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On open land, his <i>janazah</i> was placed down and his brother, 'Abdur-Rahman, led prayer over him. Then his <i>janazah</i> was taken to his grave and he was buried in the Sufiyah graveyard by the side of his brother, 'Abdullah, <i>may Allah have mercy upon them all</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">People then arrived praying over him at his grave, those who had not yet managed to pray previously. Whenever news of his death reached a region, the people would gather in the main mosques and prayer over him, especially in Sham, Egypt, Iraq, Tibreez and Basra.58
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">May Allah reward Shaykh ul-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah with goodness and grant him Al-Firdaws al-A'la and may He cause those after him to benefit from his knowledge.</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Segoe UI','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-72761946858760074732012-12-24T08:48:00.001-08:002012-12-24T08:48:43.329-08:00Ibn Khaldun<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<strong><i><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He is indeed the one outstanding personality in the history of a civilization whose social life on the whole was 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short'. In his chosen field of intellectual activity he appears to have been inspired by no predecessors, and to have found no kindred souls among his contemporaries, and to have kindled no answering spark of inspiration in any successors ; and yet, in the Prolegomena (Muqaddimat) to his Universal History he has conceived and formulated a philosophy of history which is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has ever yet been created by any mind in any time or place. It was his single brief 'acquiescence' from a life of practical activity that gave Ibn Khaldun his opportunity to cast his creative thought into literary shape.</span></i><i><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></i></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">A STUDY OR HISTORY. Vol. III. <i>Arnold ]. Toynbee. Royal Institute of International Affairs and Oxford University Press. p. 321-322. </i></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="Intro"></a><span><strong>INTRODUCTION:<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Khaldun is the most important figure in the field of History and Sociology in Muslim History. He is one of those shining stars that contributed so richly to the understanding of Civilization. In order for one to understand and appreciate his work, one must understand his life. He lived a life in search of stability and influence. He came from a family of scholars and politicians and he intended to live up to both expectations. He would succeed in the field of Scholarship much more so than in any other field.</span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="CEY"></a><span><strong>CHILDHOOD AND EARLY YEARS:<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>He is Abdurahman bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Al-Hasan bin Jabir bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Abdurahman bin Ibn Khaldun. His ancestry according to him originated from Hadramut, Yemen. He also traced his ancestry through another genealogy as supplied by Ibn Hazem using his grandfather who was the first to enter Andalusia back to Wail ibn Hajar one of the oldest Yemenite tribe. In either case, the genealogy points to his Arab origin although scholars do question the authenticity of both reports due to the political climate at the time of these reports.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n1"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[1]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis on Ramadan 1, 732 (May 27, 1332)</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n2"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[2]</strong></span></a><strong>. He received a traditional education that was typical of his family’s rank and status. He learned first at the hands of his father who was a scholarly person who was not involved in politics like his ancestors. He memorized the Qur’an by heart, learned grammar, Jurisprudence, Hadith, rhetoric, philology, and poetry. He had reached certain proficiency in these subjects and received certification in them. In his autobiography, he does mention the names these scholars.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n3"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[3]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>He continued studies until the age of 19 when the great plague would sweep over the lands from Samarkand to Mauritania. It was after this plague that Ibn Khaldun would receive his first public assignment.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n4"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[4]</strong></span></a><strong> This would start his political career that would forever change his life.</strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f"><v:stroke joinstyle="miter"></v:stroke><v:formulas><v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"></v:f><v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"></v:f><v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"></v:f></v:formulas><v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f"></v:path><o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit"></o:lock></v:shapetype><v:shape alt="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/images/ikst2.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1030" style="height: 183pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 137.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"><v:imagedata o:title="ikst2" src="file:///C:\Users\ADMINI~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg"><strong></strong></v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="INTnM"></a><span><strong>IN TUNISIA AND MOROCCO<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Tafrakin, the ruler of Tunis, called Ibn Khaldun to be the seal bearer of his captive Sultan Abu lshaq. It is here that Ibn Khaldun would get first hand look at the inner workings of court politics and the weakness of the government. It would not be long before he would get an opportunity to leave Tunis.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n5"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[5]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>In 1352 (713 A. H.) Abu Ziad, the Emir of Constantine, marched his forces on Tunis. Ibn Khaldun accompanied Ibn Tafrakin with the forces that would ward off Abu Ziad’s attacks. Tunis was defeated and Ibn Khaldun escaped to Aba, where he lived with al-Mowahideen. He would move back and forth through Algeria and settled in Biskra.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n6"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[6]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>At that same time in Morocco Sultan Abu Enan, who had recently settled on the throne of his father, was on his way to conquer Algeria. Ibn Khaldun would travel to Tlemcen to meet the Sultan. Ibn Khaldun mentions that the Sultan honored him and sent him with his chamberlain Ibn Abi Amr to Bougie to witness its submission to Sultan Abu Enan.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n7"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[7]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun would stay in the company of the Chamberlain while the Sultan moved back to the capital, Fez. In 1354 (755 A.H.) Ibn Khaldun would accept the invitation to join the council of Ulama and would move to Fez. He would eventually be promoted to the post of the seal bearer and would accept it reluctantly, because it was inferior to the posts once occupied by his ancestors.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n8"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[8]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun would use his stay in Fez to further his studies. Fez at this time was a capital of Morocco and enjoyed the company of many scholars from all over North Africa and Andalusia. He was also being promoted from one position to another.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n9"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[9]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun was an ambitious young man and at this point of his life, he would begin to engage in court politics. Ibn Khaldun would conspire with Abu Abdullah Muhammad, the dethroned ruler of Bougie who was captive in Fez at that time. Abu Abdullah is from the Banu Hafs which were patrons of Ibn Khaldun’s Family.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n10"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[10]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Sultan Abu Enan would find out about the conspiracy and would imprison Ibn Khaldun. Abu Abdullah would be released from prison and Ibn Khaldun would linger on for two years. Sultan Abu Enan would fall ill and die before fulfilling his promise to release Ibn Khaldun. The Wazir Al-Hassan ibn Omar ordered the release of Ibn Khaldun who was restored to his former position.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n11"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[11]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="EMtS"></a><span><strong>ESCAPE FROM MOROCCO TO SPAIN<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>The political climate was tense and Ibn Khaldun would again test his fate and conspire against the Wazir with al-Mansur.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n12"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[12]</strong></span></a><strong> This loyalty would be short lived too. He would conspire with Sultan Abu Salem who would overthrow Al-Mansur. Ibn Khaldun would get the position of Secretary and the repository of his confidence <i>(Amin as-Sir)</i>.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n13"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[13]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Here Ibn Khaldun would excel in his position and would compose many poems. He would occupy this position for two more years and would then be appointed as the Chief Justice. He would show a great ability in this position. However due to constant rivalry between him and high officials he would lose favor with the Sultan.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n14"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[14]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>However this would not matter because a revolt would take place and Sultan Abu Salem would be overthrown by Wazir Omar. Ibn Khaldun would side with the victorious and would get his post with higher pay. Ibn Khaldun was ambitious as ever and wanted a higher position, namely that of the Chamberlain. For reasons unknown, perhaps he was not trusted, he was refused. This upset him enough to resign his position. This in turn upset the Wazir. Ibn Khaldun would ask to leave Fez and go back to Tunisia and this request would be refused. It was then that he would ask the Wazir’s son-in-law to intercede on his behalf to be allowed to go to Andalusia.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n15"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[15]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="FStT"></a><span><strong>FROM SPAIN TO TUNISIA<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Sultan Muahmmad al-Ahmar, the king of Granada, was deposed by his brother Ismail who was supported by his brother-in-law. Sultan Muhammad was a friend of Sultan Abu Salem who helped him when he was deported to Andalusia by Sultan Abu Enan. When Sultan Abu Enan died and Sultan Abu Salem became the ruler that friendship was rekindled. Further when Ismail al-Ahmar was declared king of Granada in a place revolt, Sultan Muhammad took refuge in Morocco with Sultan Abu Salem. They were welcomed with great fanfare, Ibn Khaldun was present at the festivities. Among Sultan Muhammad’s party was his wise Wazir Ibn al-Khatib who developed a close friendship with Ibn Khaldun.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n16"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[16]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Sultan Muhammad would attempt to restore his throne in Granada through an agreement with Pedro the cruel, the King of Castile. Pedro would delay the execution of the agreement upon hearing of Sultan Abu Salem death. Sultan Muhammad would appeal to Ibn Khaldun to get the assistance from Wazir Omar. Ibn Khaldun would use his influence to help him. Further Ibn Khaldun was entrusted to care for Sultan Muhammad’s family in Fez. The Wazir would grant Sultan Muhammad Ronda and the surrounding country. Sultan Muhammad would continue his efforts and recapture his throne in 1361 (763 A. H.). He would recall his Wazir Ibn al-Khatib.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n17"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[17]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>When the relationship between Ibn Khaldun would turn sour and uncertain he would turn towards Andalusia. He would be welcomed and honored well by Sultan Muhammad who admitted him to his private council. In the following year Sultan Muhammad would send Ibn Khaldun on an Ambassadorial mission to Pedro, the King of Castile. Ibn Khaldun would conclude and peaceful terms between them. Pedro would offer Ibn Khaldun a position in his service and to return to him his family’s former estate at Castile. Ibn Khaldun would decline the offer.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n18"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[18]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Upon his return from Castile, Ibn Khaldun would offer Pedro’s gift to him to the Sultan and in return, the Sultan would give him the Village of Elvira. Soon Ibn Khaldun would be restless once more and in the following year, he would receive an invitation from his friend Abu Abdullah, who had recaptured his throne at Bougie. Ibn Khaldun left Granada in 1364 (766 A.H.) for Bougie after asking permission to leave from Sultan Muhammad.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n19"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[19]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="map"><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape alt="From Rosenthal's Translation" id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" style="height: 116.25pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 342.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"><v:imagedata o:title="From Rosenthal's Translation" src="file:///C:\Users\ADMINI~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image002.jpg"><strong></strong></v:imagedata></v:shape></span></a><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="ANA"></a><span><strong>ADVENTURES IN NORTH AFRICA<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun would arrive in Bougie at the Age of 32 years. His plans have finally been realized. The period of imprisonment in Fez did not go to waste. He would enter the city as favorite guest. He would accept the position of Hajib for Emir Muhammad. This life of power would not last long as in the following year Abul Abbas would kill the Emir Muhammad, his cousin. Ibn Khaldun handed the city to him and retired to the city of Biskra. He would continue his political work in relaying the tribes to the service of this Emir or that Sultan. He would continue his practice of shifting loyalties as the times and opportunities afforded him. He would finally retire to a far outpost south of Constantine, fort Salama.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n20"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[20]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>In Fort Salama he would enjoy this peaceful existence and would begin to write down his famous Muqqddimah and first version of his universal history at the age of forty-five years.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n21"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[21]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>He would dedicate his work to the current Emir of Constantine, Sultan Abul Abbas. Tranquility did not last long with Ibn Khaldun, as he needed more reference works which were not available at this far outpost. He used the occasion of the Abul Abbas’s conquest of Tunisia to go to Tunis. This would be the first time he would return to the town of his birth since leaving it over 27 years ago.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n22"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[22]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>There would be political forces at work against him once more and this time before he would fall out of favor he would use a convenient occasion 1382 to leave North Africa behind never to return.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n23"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[23]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="EGYPT"></a><span><strong>TO EGYPT<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun was granted permission from Sultan Abul Abbas to go to Hajj. He arrived in Alexandria in October 1382 ( 15<sup>th</sup> Shabaan 784 A. H.) at the ripe age of 50. He spent a month preparing to leave for Hajj but was unable to join the Caravan bound for the Holy Lands. He turned towards Cairo instead. Here he wold live his final days. He was warmly welcomed by scholars and students. His fame for his writings had already preceded him. He lectured at Al-Azhar and other fine schools. He would get the chance to meet with Sultan az-Zahir Barquq who would appoint him to teach at the Kamhiah school.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n24"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[24]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>He would enjoy the favors of the Sultan. He would be appointed as a Maliki Judge on the Sultans whim and anger. He would fare well and tried to fight corruption and favoritism. Again conspiracies against him would work its way and he would be relieved of this duty. His relief of duty would coincide with his family’s disaster. The ship carrying his family and belongings would sink in a storm.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n25"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[25]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>It was then that he would take permission to go to the Pilgrimage to the Holy Lands. He would return and be well received and appointed to a teaching position in the newly built school <i>(Bein al-Qasrein)</i> He would lecture in Hadith, particularly Imam Malik’s <i>Muwatta</i>. He would then be appointed to <i>Beibers</i> Sufi institute with a generous salary. The state of affairs of Egypt would be disturbed as a rival of Sultan Barquq, Yulbugha would organize a successful revolt. Sultan Barquq would stage another revolt and would be restored to his former throne. Ibn Khaldun during this period would suffer and would have his position restored to him with the return of the victorious Sultan Barquq to Power.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n26"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[26]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong> <o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun during this period would devote his time to lecturing and study as wellas to completing his Universal History. After Yulbugha’s revolt, he would write about <i>Asabiyah</i> and its role in the rise and fall of states. He would apply his theory to the Egyptian theater since the time of Salah ad-Din.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n27"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[27]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong> <o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>After fourteen years since leaving the position of the Chief <i>Maliki</i> judge Ibn Khaldun would reassigned to the post upon the death of the presiding Judge. The state would again fall into disarray upon the death of Sultan Barquq’s and his son’s ascension. Ibn Khaldun would not be a party to these revolts and would ask permission to visit Jerusalem. He would join the Sultan Faraj’s caravan on its way back from Damascus. Again due to political intrigue he would be relived of his duties as judge for the second time. This would not matter because he would be called to accompany the Sultan on perilous Journey with fate to Damascus.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n28"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[28]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong> <o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="wrld"><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape alt="From Rosenthal's Translation" id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" style="height: 271.5pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 286.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"><v:imagedata o:title="From Rosenthal's Translation" src="file:///C:\Users\ADMINI~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.jpg"><strong></strong></v:imagedata></v:shape></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: wrld;"></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="MTRLN"></a><span><strong>MEETING TAMERLANE <o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>During Ibn Khaldun’s stay in Egypt he would be asked by Sultan Faraj of Egypt to accompany him on his expedition to Damascus. News reports have confirmed the movement of Tamerlane’s war party towards Damascus. Sultan Faraj with his army were on their way to Damascus. It seems that Ibn Khaldun was asked firmly to accompany the Sultan to Damascus.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n29"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[29]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>The Sultan would only stay for two weeks in Damascus, as he had to leave due to rumors that a revolt back in Cairo was in the works. Ibn Khaldun and some notables were left behind in Damascus. It was now up to the leaders of Damascus to deal with Tamerlane. Ibn Khaldun had suggested to them to consider the terms of Tamerlane. It was the task of another Qadi, Ibn Muflih, to discuss the terms with Tamerlane. When Ibn Muflih returned from Tamerlane’s camp, the terms were not agreeable to the residents of Damascus.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n30"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[30]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Since it was the suggestion of Ibn Khaldun to come to terms with Tamerlane, Ibn Khaldun felt obliged to meet with Tamerlane personally. Ibn Khaldun would leave Damascus and go to the camp of Tamerlane. It is questionable whether he went on his own or in an official capacity. Ibn Khaldun took some gifts with him for Tamerlane and they were well received. Ibn Khaldun would stay in Tamerlane’s camp for thirty-five days.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n31"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[31]</strong></span></a><strong> </strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Over this period, Ibn Khaldun would have many meetings with Tamerlane and they would converse through an interpreter, Abd al-Jabbar al-Khwarizmi (d. 1403). Ibn Khaldun’s account is the only detailed account available. The subjects that they would discuss were varied and some were unrecorded. W. Fischel lists 6 specific topics which they talked about:</span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On Maghrib and Ibn Khaldun’s Land of origin.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On heroes in History.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On predictions of things to come.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On the Abbsid Caliphate<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On amnesty and security "For Ibn Khaldun and his Companion."<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">On Ibn Khaldun’s intention to stay with Tamerlane.<a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n32"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">[32]</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun impressed the conqueror enough to ask him to join his court. Some biographers have suggested that he did and written down his eloquent appeal to return to Egypt to settle his affairs, get his books and family and join Tamerlane. It however is more likely that Ibn Khaldun left on good terms with Tamerlane and have accomplished his mission of extracting favorable terms for the people of Damascus.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n33"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[33]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ibn Khaldun’s departing words lend credence to the fact that he would not be returning to his service:</span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> <o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>"Is there any generosity left beyond that which you have already shown me? You have heaped favors upon me, accorded me a place in your council among your intimate followers, and shown me kindness and generosity- which I hope Allah will repay to you in like measures."</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n34"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[34]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="FDIEGPT"></a><span><strong>FINAL DAYS IN EGYPT :<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Upon Ibn Khaldun’s return to Egypt, he was restored as the <i>Malikite Qadi</i>. Due to the political situation within the community of <i>Malikite Qadis</i> Ibn Khaldun would be dismissed and reinstated three times during the five-year period. Finally, he died while he was in office on Wednesday March 17<sup>th</sup> 1406 (25<sup>th</sup> of Ramadan 808). He was buried in the Sufi Cemetery outside <i>Bab an-Nasr,</i> Cairo at the age of seventy-four years.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n35"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[35]</strong></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="MQDMA"></a><span><strong>THE MAGNUM OPUS "AL-MUQADDIMAH"<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>He would his write his Introduction to his book of universal history in a span of five months.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n36"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[36]</strong></span></a><strong> This impressive document is a gist of his wisdom and hard earned experience. He would use his political and first had knowledge of the people of Maghrib to formulate many of his ideas. This document would summarize Ibn Khaldun’s ideas about every field of knowledge during his day. He would discuss a variety of topics. He would discuss History and Historiography. He would rebuke some of the historical claims with a calculated logic. He would discuss the current sciences of his days. He would talk about astronomy, astrology, and numerology. He would discuss Chemistry, alchemy and Magic in a scientific way. He would freely offer his opinions and document well the "facts" of the other point of view. His discussion of Tribal societies and social forces would be the most interesting part of his thesis. He would illuminate the world with deep insight into the workings and makings of kingdoms and civilizations. His thesis that the conquered race will always emulate the conqueror in every way.</strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/knts.htm#n37"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>[37]</strong></span></a><strong> His theory about <i>Asbyiah</i> (group feeling) and the role that it plays in Bedouin societies is insightful. His theories of the science of <i>Umran </i>(sociology) are all pearls of wisdom. His Introduction is his greatest legacy that he left for all of humanity and the generations to come.</strong></span><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="BIBLo"></a><span><strong>Bibliography<o:p></o:p></strong></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Note that the Photo of original Manuscript on the cover page is cover sheet from the cover of one of the manuscripts that have Ibn Khaldun’s very own handwriting!. [extremely Cool!] Also note that the map of Ibn Khaldun's travels is also from The Muqaddimah by F. Rosenthal. The Portrait of Ibn Khaldun is from the following site: </strong><a href="http://www.jamil.com/personalities/"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>http://www.jamil.com/personalities/</strong></span></a><strong> accessed on 5/21/01. The stamps are from the Tunisian Postal authority website accessed on 6/19/01.</strong></span></i><i><span style="color: #4f2626; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong> <o:p></o:p></strong></span></i></div>
<ol type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun, Abdurahman M., <i>Mokaddimat Ibn Khaldoun</i>, Ed. Darweesh al-Jawydi, al-Maktaba al-Asriyah, Sidon-Beirut, 1995. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Al-Asqalani, Ibn Hajar, <i>Ad-Dorar al-Kaminah fi ‘Ayan al-Miah al-Thamina</i>,[the Hidden Jewels in the notables of eight century] a Photostat copy of the Hyderabad edition (1929-1930). Dar Ihya al-Torath al-Araby, Beirut, n.d. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Ibn Khaldun, <i>The Muqaddimah, An Introduction to History</i>, Tr. Franz Rosenthal, Bollingen Series XLIII. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1967 3 Vols. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Fischel, Walter J., <i>Ibn Khaldun in Egypt: His public functions and his historical research (1382-1406) A study in Islamic Historiography</i>, University of California Press, Berkeley 1967. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Enan, Mohammad A., <i>Ibn Khaldun: His life and Works</i>, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, 1979. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Mahdi, Muhsin, <i>Ibn Khaldun’s philosophy of History: A study in the philosophic foundation of the science of culture</i>, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1957. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Issawi, Charles, <i>An Arab Philosophy of history: Selections from the prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (1332-1406)</i>, the Wisdom of the East Series, John Murray, London, 1950. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Lacoste, Yves, <i>Ibn Khaldun: The birth of history and the past of the third world</i>. Tr. David Macy. Verso, London, 1984. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><strong>Lawrence, David, Ed., <i>Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology</i>, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1984. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><a href="http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/ibnkhaldun/index.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>Ibn Khaldun on the Web</strong></span></a><strong>. (a springboard to links Ibn Khaldunia). <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #4f2626; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Verdana','sans-serif'; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><a href="http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/seerah/0033.htm" target="_blank"><span style="color: #0066ff; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><strong>Ibn Khaldun</strong></span></a><strong> a web biography. <o:p></o:p></strong></span></li>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-26399894406672556562012-12-24T08:45:00.001-08:002012-12-24T08:45:20.319-08:00Al Ghazali<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Biography of Al-Ghazali Abu Hamid<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Abu Hamed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzali, known as Algazel to the western medieval world, born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia (modern day Iran) was a Persian Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, and mystic. <br /><br />Ghazali has sometimes been referred to by historians as the single most influential Muslim after the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Others have cited his movement from science to faith as a detriment to Islamic scientific progress. Besides his work that successfully changed the course of Islamic philosophy—the early Islamic Neoplatonism developed on the grounds of Hellenistic philosophy, for example, was so successfully refuted by Ghazali that it never recovered—he also brought the orthodox Islam of his time in close contact with Sufism. The orthodox theologians still went their own way, and so did the mystics, but both developed a sense of mutual appreciation which ensured that no sweeping condemnation could be made by one for the practices of the other. <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Life</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;"> <br nodeindex="6" /><br nodeindex="7" />Al-Ghazali was born in 1058 in Tus, a city in Khorasan province of Persia (Iran). His father, a traditional sufi, died when he and his younger brother, Ahmad Ghazali, were still young. One of their father's friends took care of them for the next few years. Later in 1070, Ghazali and his brother went to Gurgan to get enrolled in a madrassah. There, he studied fiqh (islamic jurisprudence) next to Ahmad ibn Muhammad Radkani and Abu'l Qasim Jurjani. After approximately 7 years of studying, he returned to Tus. <br nodeindex="8" /><br nodeindex="9" />His first important trip to Nishapur occurred around 1080 when he was almost 23 years old. He became the student of the famous Muslim scholar Abu'l Ma'ali Juwayni, known as Imam al-Haramayn. After the death of Al-Juwayni in 1085, Al-Ghazali was invited to go to the court of Nizamul Mulk Tusi, the powerful vizier of the Seljuq sultans. The vizier was so impressed by Al-Ghazali's scholarship that in 1091 he appointed him as chief professor in the Nizamiyya of Baghdad. He used to lecture to more than 300 students, and his participations in Islamic debates and discussions made him popular in all over the Islamic territories. <br nodeindex="10" /><br nodeindex="11" />He passed through a spiritual crisis in 1095 and abandoned his career and left Baghdad on the pretext of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Making arrangements for his family, he disposed of his wealth and adopted the life of a poor Sufi. After some time in Damascus and Jerusalem, with a visit to Medina and Mecca in 1096, he settled in Tus to spend the next several years in seclusion. He ended his seclusion for a short lecturing period at the Nizamiyyah of Nishapur in 1106. Later he returned to Tus where he remained until his death in December, 1111. He had one son named Abdu'l Rahman Allam. <br nodeindex="12" /><br nodeindex="13" /><b nodeindex="14">School affiliations</b> <br nodeindex="15" /><br nodeindex="16" />Al-Ghazali contributed significantly to the development of a systematic view of Sufism and its integration and acceptance in mainstream Islam. He was a scholar of orthodox Islam, belonging to the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence and to the Asharite school of theology. Ghazali received many titles such as Sharaful A'emma , Zainuddin, and Hujjatul Islam, meaning "Proof of Islam". <br nodeindex="17" /><br nodeindex="18" />He is viewed as the key member of the influential Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy and the most important refuter of Mutazilites. However, he chose a slightly different position in comparison with the Asharites; his beliefs and thoughts differ, in some aspects, from the orthodox Asharite school. <br nodeindex="19" /><b>Works</b> <br nodeindex="22" /><br nodeindex="23" /><b nodeindex="24">Incoherence of the Philosophers</b> <br nodeindex="25" /><br nodeindex="26" />His 11th century book titled The Incoherence of the Philosophers marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology. The encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God. <br nodeindex="27" /><br nodeindex="28" />The Incoherence also marked a turning point in Islamic philosophy in its vehement rejections of Aristotle and Plato. The book took aim at the falasifa, a loosely defined group of Islamic philosophers from the 8th through the 11th centuries (most notable among them Avicenna and Al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon the Ancient Greeks. Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labeled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith. <br nodeindex="29" /><br nodeindex="30" />In the next century, Averroes drafted a lengthy rebuttal of Ghazali's Incoherence entitled the Incoherence of the Incoherence; however, the epistemological course of Islamic thought had already been set. <br nodeindex="31" /><br nodeindex="32" /><b nodeindex="33">Autobiography</b> <br nodeindex="34" /><br nodeindex="35" />The autobiography Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, The Deliverer From Error (Al-munqidh min al-?alal; several English translations) is considered a work of major importance. In it, Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism was resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast...the key to most knowledge," he studied and mastered the arguments of kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and insight (the state of prophecy or nubuwwa) he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. William James, in Varieties of Religious Experience, considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian" because of the scarcity of recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature from this period outside the Christian tradition. <br nodeindex="36" /><br nodeindex="37" /><b nodeindex="38">The Revival of Religious Sciences</b> <br nodeindex="39" /><br nodeindex="40" />Another of Ghazali's major work is Ihya' Ulum al-Din or Ihya'u Ulumiddin (The Revival of Religious Sciences). It covers almost all fields of Islamic sciences: fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), kalam (theology) and sufism. It contains four major sections: Acts of worship (Rub' al-'ibadat), Norms of Daily Life (Rub' al-'adatat), The ways to Perdition (Rub' al-muhlikat) and The Ways to Salvation (Rub' al-munjiyat). Many admirable comments were made regarding this book: "If all Islamic sciences were disappeared, they could be taken back from Ihya'u Ulumiddin." He then wrote a brief version of this book in Persian under The Alchemy of Happiness (Kimiya-yi sa'adat). <br nodeindex="41" /><br nodeindex="42" /><b nodeindex="43">The Jerusalem Tract</b> <br nodeindex="44" /><br nodeindex="45" />At the insistence of his students in Jerusalem, Ghazali wrote a concise exposition of Islam entitled The Jerusalem Tract. <br nodeindex="46" /><br nodeindex="47" /><b nodeindex="48">Ghazali's influence</b> <br nodeindex="49" /><br nodeindex="50" />Ghazali had an important influence on both Muslim philosophers and Christian medieval philosophers. Margaret Smith writes in her book Al-Ghazali: The Mystic (London 1944): "There can be no doubt that Al-Ghazali’s works would be among the first to attract the attention of these European scholars" (page 220). Then she emphasizes, "The greatest of these Christian writers who was influenced by Al-Ghazali was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), who made a study of the Arabic writers and admitted his indebtedness to them. He studied at the University of Naples where the influence of Arab literature and culture was predominant at the time." In addition, Aquinas' interest in Islamic studies could be attributed to the infiltration of ‘Latin Averroism’ in the 13th century, especially at [the University of] Paris. <br nodeindex="51" /><br nodeindex="52" />Ghazali's influence has been compared to the works of St. Thomas Aquinas in Christian theology, but the two differed greatly in methods and beliefs. Whereas Ghazali rejected non-Islamic philosophers such as Aristotle and saw it fit to discard their teachings on the basis of their "unbelief," Aquinas embraced them and incorporated ancient Greek and Latin thought into his own philosophical writings. <br nodeindex="53" /><br nodeindex="54" />Ghazali also played a very major role in integrating Sufism with Shariah. He combined the concepts of Sufism very well with the Shariah laws. He was also the first to present a formal description of Sufism in his works. His works also strengthened the status of Sunnite Islam against other schools. The Batinite (Ismailism) had emerged in Persian territories and were gaining more and more power during Ghazali's period, as Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated by the members of Ismailis. Ghazali strictly refuted their ideology and wrote several books on refutation of Baatinyas which significantly weakened their status. <br nodeindex="55" /><br nodeindex="56" /><b nodeindex="57">Works in Persian</b> <br nodeindex="58" /><br nodeindex="59" />Al-Ghazali wrote most of his works in Arabic and few in Persian. His most important Persian work is Kimyayé Sa'adat (The Alchemy of Happiness). It is Al-Ghazali's own Persian version of Ihya'ul ulumuddin (The Revival of Religious Sciences) in Arabic, but a shorter work. It is one of the outstanding works of 11th-century-Persian literature. The book was published several times in Tehran by the edition of Hussain Khadev-jam, a renown Iranian scholar. It is translated to English, Arabic, Turkish, Urdu and other languages. <br nodeindex="60" /><br nodeindex="61" />Apart from Kimya, the most celebrated of Ghazali's works in Persian is Nasihatul Muluk (The Counseling Kings), written most probably for Sultan Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malekshah. In the edition published by Jalaluddin Humayi, the book consists of two parts of which only the first can reliably be attributed to Ghazali. The language and the contents of some passages are similar to the Kimyaye Sa'adat. The second part differs considerably in content and style from the well-known writings of Ghazali. It contains the stories of pre-Islamic kings of Persia, especially those of Anoshervan. Nasihatul Muluk was early translated to Arabic under the title al-Tibr al-masbuk fi nasihat al-muluk (The Forged Sword in Counseling Kings). <br nodeindex="62" /><br nodeindex="63" />Zad-e Akherat (Provision for the hereafter) is an important Persian book of Ghazali but gained less scholarly attention. The greater part of it consists of the Persian translation of one of his Arabic books, Bedayat al-Hedaya (Beginning of Guidance). It contains in addition the same contents as the Kimyayé Sa'adat. The book was most probably written during the last years of his life. Its manuscripts are in Kabul (Library of the Department of Press) and in Leiden. <br nodeindex="64" /><br nodeindex="65" />Pand-nama (Book of Counsel) is another book of advice and probably attributed to Sultan Sanjar. The introduction to the book relates that Ghazali wrote the book in response to a certain king who had asked him for advice. Ay farzand (O son!) is a short book of counsel that Ghazali wrote for one of his students. The book was early translated to Arabic entitled ayyuhal walad. His another Persian work is Hamaqati ahli ibahat or Raddi ebahiyya (Condemnation of antinomians) which is his fatwa in Persian illustrated with Quranic verses and Hadiths. <br nodeindex="66" /><br nodeindex="67" />Faza'ilul al-anam min rasa'ili hujjat al-Islam is the collection of letters in Persians that Ghazali wrote in response to the kings, ministers, jurists and some of his friends after he returned to Khorasan. The collection was gathered by one of his grandchildren after his death, under five sections/chapters. The longest letter is the response to objections raised against some of his statements in Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche of Light) and al-Munqidh min al-dalal (Rescuer from Error). The first letter is the one which Ghazali wrote to Sultan Sanjar presenting his excuse for teaching in Nizamiyya of Nishapur; followed by Ghazali's speech in the court of Sultan Sanjar. Ghazali makes an impressing speech when he was taken to the king's court in Nishapur in 1106, giving very influential counsels, asking the sultan once again for excusing him from teaching in Nizamiyya and refuting the accusations made against him for disrespecting Imam Abu Hanifa in his books. The sultan was so impressed that ordered Ghazali to write down his speech so that it will be sent to all the ulemas of Khorasan and Iraq. <br nodeindex="68" /><br nodeindex="69" /><b nodeindex="70">Criticism</b> <br nodeindex="71" /><br nodeindex="72" />Praise for al-Ghazali not withstanding, he also received criticism from within Islam: <br nodeindex="73" /><br nodeindex="74" />Ibn Taymiyyah states: <br nodeindex="75" /><br nodeindex="76" />“<i nodeindex="77">If we assume that someone narrated the view of the salaf but what he narrated is far removed from what the view of the salaf actually is, then he has little knowledge of the view of the salaf, such as Abu’l-Ma’aali, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ibn al-Khateeb and the like, who did not have enough knowledge of hadith to qualify them as ordinary scholars of hadith, let alone as prominent scholars in that field. For none of these people had any knowledge of al-Bukhari and Muslim and their hadiths, apart from what they heard, which is similar to the situation of the ordinary Muslim, who cannot distinguish between a hadiith which is regarded as sahih and mutawatir according to the scholars of hadith, and a hadith which is fabricated and false. Their books bear witness to that, for they contain strange things and most of these scholars of ‘ilm al-kalam (science of kalam) and Sufis who have drifted away from the path of the salaf admit that, either at the time of death or before death. There are many such well-known stories. This Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, despite his brilliance, his devotion to Allah, his knowledge of kalam and philosophy, his asceticism and spiritual practices and his Sufism, ended up in a state of confusion and resorted to the path of those who claim to find out things through dreams and spiritual methods."</i> <br nodeindex="78" /><br nodeindex="79" />Ibn Rushd (Averroes), a rationalist, famously responded that "to say that philosophers are incoherent is itself to make an incoherent statement." Rushd's book, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, attempted to refute Al-Ghazali's views, though the work was not well received in the Muslim community.<br nodeindex="80" /><br nodeindex="81" /><b nodeindex="82">Al-Ghazali Abu Hamid's Published Books:</b><br nodeindex="83" /><b>Theology</b> <br nodeindex="86" /><br nodeindex="87" />al-Munqidh min al-dalal (Rescuer from Error) <br nodeindex="88" />Hujjat al-Haq (Proof of the Truth) <br nodeindex="89" />al-Iqtisad fil-i`tiqad (Median in Belief) <br nodeindex="90" />al-maqsad al-asna fi sharah asma' Allahu al-husna (The best means in explaining Allah's Beautiful Names) <br nodeindex="91" />Jawahir al-Qur'an wa duraruh (Jewels of the Qur'an and its Pearls) <br nodeindex="92" />Fayasl al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa (The Criterion of Distinction between Islam and Clandestine Unbelief) <br nodeindex="93" />Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche of Lights) <br nodeindex="94" />Tafsir al-yaqut al-ta'wil <br nodeindex="95" /><br nodeindex="96" /><b nodeindex="97">Sufism</b> <br nodeindex="98" /><br nodeindex="99" />Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action) <br nodeindex="100" />Ihya'ul ulum al-din, "Revival of Religious Sciences", Ghazali's most important work <br nodeindex="101" />Bidayat al-hidayah (Beginning of Guidance) <br nodeindex="102" />Kimiya-yi sa'adat (The Alchemy of Happiness) [a résumé of Ihya'ul ulum, in Persian] <br nodeindex="103" />Nasihat al-muluk (Counseling Kings) [in Persian] <br nodeindex="104" />al-Munqidh min al-dalal (Rescuer from Error) <br nodeindex="105" />Minhaj al-'Abidin (Methodology for the Worshipers) <br nodeindex="106" /><br nodeindex="107" /><b nodeindex="108">Philosophy</b> <br nodeindex="109" /><br nodeindex="110" />Maqasid al falasifa (Aims of Philosophers) [written in the beginning of his life, in favour of philosophy and presenting the basic theories in Philosophy, mostly influenced by Avicenna's works] <br nodeindex="111" />Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), [in this book he refutes the Greek Philosophy aiming at Avicenna and Al-Farabi; and of which Ibn Rushd wrote his famous refutation Tahafut al-tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence)] <br nodeindex="112" />Miyar al-Ilm fi fan al-Mantiq (Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic) <br nodeindex="113" />Mihak al-Nazar fi al-mantiq (Touchstone of Reasoning in Logic) <br nodeindex="114" />al-Qistas al-mustaqim (The Correct Balance) <br nodeindex="115" /><br nodeindex="116" /><b nodeindex="117">Jurisprudence</b> <br nodeindex="118" /><br nodeindex="119" />Fatawy al-Ghazali (Verdicts of al-Ghazali) <br nodeindex="120" />Al-wasit fi al-mathab (The medium [digest] in the Jurisprudential school) <br nodeindex="121" />Kitab tahzib al-Isul (Pruning on Legal Theory) <br nodeindex="122" />al-Mustasfa fi 'ilm al-isul (The Clarified in Legal Theory) <br nodeindex="123" />Asas al-Qiyas (Foundation of Analogical reasoning) <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-12535328228279009332012-12-24T08:27:00.001-08:002016-01-25T13:46:32.297-08:00Al - Farabi<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: "cambria"; font-size: medium;">al-Farabi, Abu Nasr (<i>c.</i>870-950)</span></span></h2>
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<i><strong><span style="font-size: small;">Al-Farabi was known to the Arabs as the 'Second Master' (after Aristotle), and with good reason. It is unfortunate that his name has been overshadowed by those of later philosophers such as Ibn Sina, for al-Farabi was one of the world's great philosophers and much more original than many of his Islamic successors. A philosopher, logician and musician, he was also a major political scientist.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></i><br />
<i><strong><span style="font-size: small;">Al-Farabi has left us no autobiography and consequently, relatively little is known for certain about his life. His philosophical legacy, however, is large. In the arena of metaphysics he has been designated the 'Father of Islamic Neoplatonism', and while he was also saturated with Aristotelianism and certainly deploys the vocabulary of Aristotle, it is this Neoplatonic dimension which dominates much of his corpus. This is apparent in his most famous work, </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City)</strong></span></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> which, far from being a copy or a clone of Plato's Republic, is imbued with the Neoplatonic concept of God. Of course, </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>al-Madina al-fadila</strong></span></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> has undeniable Platonic elements but its theology, as opposed to its politics, places it outside the mainstream of pure Platonism.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></i><br />
<i><strong><span style="font-size: small;">In his admittedly complex theories of epistemology, al-Farabi has both an Aristotelian and Neoplatonic dimension, neither of which is totally integrated with the other. His influence was wide and extended not only to major Islamic philosophers such as Ibn Sina who came after him, and to lesser mortals such as Yahya ibn 'Adi, al-Sijistani, al-'Amiri and al-Tawhidi, but also to major thinkers of Christian medieval Europe including Thomas Aquinas.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></i><br />
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021SECT1"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>Life and works</strong></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;"> </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021SECT2"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>Metaphysics</strong></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;"> </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021SECT3"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>Epistemology</strong></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;"> </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021SECT4"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>Political philosophy</strong></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;"> </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021SECT5"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;"><strong>Influence</strong></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;"> </span></li>
</ol>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021SECT1">1. Life and works</a></h3>
<span style="mso-bookmark: H021SECT1;"></span><strong><span style="font-size: small;">Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Awzalagh al-Farabi was born in approximately </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ah</span><span style="font-size: small;"> 257/</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ad</span><span style="font-size: small;"> 870. He may rightly be acclaimed as one of the greatest of Islamic philosophers of all time. While his name tends to be overshadowed by that of </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H026"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ibn Sina</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, it is worth bearing in mind that the latter was less original than the former. Indeed, a well-known story tells how Ibn Sina sought in vain to understand Aristotle's <i>Metaphysics</i>, and it was only through a book by al-Farabi on the intentions of the <i>Metaphysics</i> that understanding finally came to him. However, unlike Ibn Sina, al-Farabi has left us no autobiography and we know far less about his life in consequence. Considerable myth has become attached to the man: it is unlikely, for example, that he really spoke more than seventy languages, and we may also query his alleged ascetic lifestyle. We do know that he was born in Turkestan and later studied Arabic in Baghdad; it has been claimed that most of his books were written here. He travelled to Damascus, Egypt, Harran and Aleppo, and in the latter city the Hamdanid ruler Sayf al-Dawla became his patron. Even the circumstances of his death are not clear: some accounts portray him dying naturally in Damascus while at least one holds that he was mugged and killed on the road from Damascus to Ascalon.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">Al-Farabi became an expert in philosophy and logic, and also in music: one of his works is entitled </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT5"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Kitab al-musiqa al-kabir (The Great Book of Music)</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">. However, perhaps the book for which he is best known is that whose title is abbreviated to </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City)</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, and which is often compared, misleadingly in view of its Neoplatonic orientation, to Plato's <i>Republic</i>. Other major titles from al-Farabi's voluminous corpus included the </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT2"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Risala fi'l-'aql (Epistle on the Intellect)</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT3"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Kitab al-huruf (The Book of Letters)</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> and </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT4"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Kitab ihsa' al-'ulum (The Book of the Enumeration of the Sciences)</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021SECT2">2. Metaphysics</a></h3>
<span style="mso-bookmark: H021SECT2;"></span><strong><span style="font-size: small;">Majid Fakhry (</span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021BIBENT3"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">1983</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">) has described al-Farabi as 'the founder of Arab Neo-Platonism and the first major figure in the history of that philosophical movement since Proclus'. This should be borne in mind as we survey the metaphysics of the philosopher whom the Latin Middle Ages knew as Abunaser and whom the Arabs designated the 'Second Master' (after Aristotle). It should be noted that al-Farabi was an Aristotelian as well as a Neoplatonist: he is said, for example, to have read <i>On the Soul</i> two hundred times and even the <i>Physics</i> forty times. It should then come as no surprise that he deploys Aristotelian terminology, and indeed there are areas of his writings that are quite untouched by Neoplatonism. Furthermore, al-Farabi tried to demonstrate the basic agreement between Aristotle and Plato on such matters as the creation of the world, the survival of the soul and reward and punishment in the afterlife. In al-Farabi's conception of God, essence and existence fuse absolutely with no possible separation between the two. However, there is no getting away from the fact that it is the Neoplatonic element which dominates so much else of al-Farabi's work. We see this, for example, in the powerful picture of the transcendent God of Neoplatonism which dominates </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-Madina al-fadila</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">. We see this too in al-Farabi's references to God in a negative mode, describing the deity by what he is not: he has no partner, he is indivisible and indefinable. And perhaps we see the Neoplatonic element most of all in the doctrine of emanation as it is deployed in al-Farabi's hierarchy of being.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">At the top of this hierarchy is the Divine Being whom al-Farabi characterizes as 'the First'. From this emanates a second being which is the First Intellect. (This is termed, logically, 'the Second', that is, the Second Being). Like God, this being is an immaterial substance. A total of ten intellects emanate from the First Being. The First Intellect comprehends God and, in consequence of that comprehension, produces a third being, which is the Second Intellect. The First Intellect also comprehends its own essence, and the result of this comprehension is the production of the body and soul of <i>al-sama' al-ula</i>, the First Heaven. Each of the following emanated intellects are associated with the generation of similar astral phenomena, including the fixed stars, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon. Of particular significance in the emanationist hierarchy is the Tenth Intellect: it is this intellect which constitutes the real bridge between the heavenly and terrestrial worlds. This Tenth Intellect (variously called by the philosophers the active or agent intellect in English, the <i>nous poiétikos</i> in Greek, the <i>dator formarum</i> in Latin and the <i>'aql al-fa''al</i> in Arabic) was responsible both for actualizing the potentiality for thought in man's intellect and emanating form to man and the sublunary world. With regard to the latter activity, it has been pointed out that here the active intellect takes on the role of Plotinus' Universal Soul (see </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A090"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Plotinus</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">).<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">In Farabian metaphysics, then, the concept of Neoplatonic emanation replaces that of Qur'anic creation <i>ex nihilo</i> (see </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H003#H003SECT2"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Neoplatonism in Islamic philosophy §2</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">). Furthermore, the Deity at the top of the Neoplatonic hierarchy is portrayed in a very remote fashion. Al-Farabi's philosophers' God does not act directly on the sublunary world: much is delegated to the Active Intellect. However, God for al-Farabi certainly has an indirect 'responsibility' for everything, in that all things emanate from him. Yet we must also note, in order to present a fully rounded picture, that while it is the Neoplatonic portrait of God which dominates al-Farabi's writings, this is not the only picture. In some of his writings the philosopher <i>does</i> address God traditionally, Qur'anically and Islamically: he <i>does</i> invoke God as 'Lord of the Worlds' and 'God of the Easts and the Wests', and he asks God to robe him in splendid clothes, wisdom and humility and deliver him from misfortune. Yet the overwhelming Neoplatonic substratum of so much else of what he writes fully justifies Fakhry's characterization of al-Farabi, cited earlier, as 'the founder of Arab Neo-Platonism'.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021SECT3">3. Epistemology</a></h3>
<span style="mso-bookmark: H021SECT3;"></span><strong><span style="font-size: small;">Farabian epistemology has both a Neoplatonic and an Aristotelian dimension. Much of the former has already been surveyed in our examination of al-Farabi's metaphysics, and thus our attention turns now to the Aristotelian dimension. Our three primary Arabic sources for this are al-Farabi's </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT4"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Kitab ihsa' al-'ulum</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT2"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Risala fi'l-'aql</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> and </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT3"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Kitab al-huruf</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">It is the second of these works, </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT2"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Risala fi'l-'aql</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, which provides perhaps the most useful key to al-Farabi's complex theories of intellection. In this work he divides <i>'aql</i> (intellect or reason) into six major categories in an attempt to elaborate the various meanings of the Arabic word <i>'aql</i>. First, there is what might be termed discernment or prudence; the individual who acts for the good is characterized by this faculty, and there is clearly some overlap with the fourth kind of intellect, described below. The second of al-Farabi's intellects is that which has been identified with common sense; this intellect has connotations of 'obviousness' and 'immediate recognition' associated with it. Al-Farabi's third intellect is natural perception. He traces its source to Aristotle's <i>Posterior Analytics</i>, and it is this intellect which allows us to be certain about fundamental truths. It is not a skill derived from the study of logic, but it may well be inborn. The fourth of the six intellects may be characterized as 'conscience': this is drawn by the philosopher from Book VI of Aristotle's <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. It is a quality whereby good might be distinguished from evil and results from considerable experience of life (see </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A022#A022SECT18"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Aristotle §§18-21</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">).<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">Al-Farabi's fifth intellect is both the most difficult and the most important. He gives most space to its description in his </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT2"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Risala fi'l-'aql</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> and considers it to be of four different types: potential intellect, actual intellect, acquired intellect and agent or active intellect. <i>'Aql bi'l-quwwa</i> (potential intellect) is the intellect which, in Fakhry's words, has the capacity 'of abstracting the forms of existing entities with which it is ultimately identified' (Fakhry </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021BIBENT3"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">1983: 121</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">). Potential intellect can thus become <i>'aql bi'l-fi'l</i> (actual intellect). In its relationship to the actual intellect, the third sub-species of intellect, <i>'aql mustafad</i> (acquired intellect) is, to use Fakhry's words again, the 'the agent of actualization' to the actualized object. Finally, there is the <i>'aql al-fa''al</i> (agent or active intellect), which was described in §2 above and need not be elaborated upon again.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">The sixth and last of the major intellects is Divine Reason or God himself, the source of all intellectual energy and power. Even this brief presentation of Farabian intellection must appear complex; however, given the complexity of the subject itself, there is little option.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">The best source for al-Farabi's classification of knowledge is his </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT4"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Kitab ihsa' al-'ulum</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">. This work illustrates neatly al-Farabi's beliefs both about what can be known and the sheer range of that knowledge. Here he leaves aside the division into theological and philosophical sciences which other Islamic thinkers would use, and divides his material instead into five major chapters. Through all of them runs a primary Aristotelian stress on the importance of knowledge. Chapter 1 deals with the 'science of language', Chapter 2 formally covers the 'science of logic', Chapter 3 is devoted to the 'mathematical sciences', Chapter 4 surveys physics and metaphysics, and the final chapter encompasses 'civil science' (some prefer the term 'political science'), jurisprudence and scholastic theology. A brief examination of these chapter headings shows that a total of eight main subjects are covered; not surprisingly, there are further subdivisions as well. To give just one example, the third chapter on the mathematical sciences embraces the seven subdivisions of arithmetic, geometry, optics, astronomy, music, weights and 'mechanical artifices'; these subdivisions in turn have their own subdivisions. Thus al-Farabi's epistemology, from what has been described both in this section and §2 above, may be said to be encyclopedic in range and complex in articulation, with that articulation using both a Neoplatonic and an Aristotelian voice.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021SECT4">4. Political philosophy</a></h3>
<span style="mso-bookmark: H021SECT4;"></span><strong><span style="font-size: small;">The best known Arabic source for al-Farabi's political philosophy is </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-Madina al-fadila</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">. While this work undoubtedly embraces Platonic themes, it is in no way an Arabic clone of Plato's <i>Republic</i>. This becomes very clear right at the beginning of al-Farabi's work, with its description of the First Cause (Chapters 1-2) and the emanation of 'the Second' from 'The First' (Chapter 3). Later in the work, however, al-Farabi lays down in Platonic fashion the qualities necessary for the ruler: he should be predisposed to rule by virtue of an innate disposition and exhibit the right attitude for such rule. He will have perfected himself and be a good orator, and his soul will be, as it were, united to the active intellect (see §3). He will have a strong physique, a good understanding and memory, love learning and truth and be above the materialism of this world. Other qualities are enumerated by al-Farabi as well, and it is clear that here his ideal ruler is akin to Plato's classical philosopher-king (see </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A088#A088SECT14"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Plato §14</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">).<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">Al-Farabi has a number of political divisions for his world. He identifies, for example, three types of society which are perfect and grades these according to size. His ideal virtuous city, which gives its name to the whole volume, is that which wholeheartedly embraces the pursuit of goodness and happiness and where the virtues will clearly abound. This virtuous city is compared in its function to the limbs of a perfectly healthy body. By stark contrast, al-Farabi identifies four different types of corrupt city: these are the ignorant city (<i>al-madina al-jahiliyya</i>), the dissolute city (<i>al-madina al-fasiqa</i>), the turncoat city (<i>al-madina al-mubaddala</i>) and the straying city (<i>al-madina al-dalla</i>). The souls of many of the inhabitants of such cities face ultimate extinction, while those who have been the cause of their fall face eternal torment. In itemizing four corrupt societies, al-Farabi was surely aware of Plato's own fourfold division of imperfect societies in the Republic into timarchy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. The resemblance, however, is more one of structure (four divisions) rather than of content.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">At the heart of al-Farabi's political philosophy is the concept of happiness (<i>sa'ada</i>). The virtuous society (<i>al-ijtima' al-fadil</i>) is defined as that in which people cooperate to gain happiness. The virtuous city (<i>al-madina al-fadila</i>) is one where there is cooperation in achieving happiness. The virtuous world (<i>al-ma'mura al-fadila</i>) will only occur when all its constituent nations collaborate to achieve happiness. Walzer reminds us that both Plato and Aristotle held that supreme happiness was only to be gained by those who philosophized in the right manner. Al-Farabi followed the Greek paradigm and the highest rank of happiness was allocated to his ideal sovereign whose soul was 'united as it were with the Active Intellect'. But Walzer goes on to stress that al-Farabi 'does not confine his interest to the felicity of the first ruler: he is equally concerned with the felicity of all the five classes which make up the perfect state' (Walzer, in introduction to </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-Madina al-fadila</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> (</span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021WKENT1"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">1985: 409-10</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">)). Farabian political philosophy, then, sits astride the saddle of Greek <i>eudaimonia</i>, and a soteriological dimension may easily be deduced from this emphasis on happiness. For if salvation in some form is reserved for the inhabitants of the virtuous city, and if the essence of that city is happiness, then it is no exaggeration to say that salvation is the reward of those who cooperate in the achievement of human happiness. <i>Eudaimonia</i>/<i>sa'ada</i> becomes a soteriological raft or steed.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021SECT5">5. Influence</a></h3>
<span style="mso-bookmark: H021SECT5;"></span><strong><span style="font-size: small;">The impact of al-Farabi's work on </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H026"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ibn Sina</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> was not limited merely to illuminating Aristotle's <i>Metaphysics</i>. It was with good reason that al-Farabi was designated the 'Second Master' (after Aristotle). One modern scholar recently acknowledged the dependence of Ibn Sina on al-Farabi in a book dealing with both which he entitled </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021BIBENT4"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">The Two Farabis</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> (Farrukh </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h021.htm#H021BIBENT4"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">1944</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">). And if </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/B007#B007SECT9"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Aquinas (§9)</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> did not derive his essence-existence doctrine from al-Farabi but from the Latinized Ibn Sina, as is generally assumed, there is no doubt that Farabian concepts of essence and existence provided a base for the elaborated metaphysics of Ibn Sina and thence of Aquinas. Finally, the briefest of comparisons between the tenfold hierarchy of intellection produced by al-Farabi and the similar hierarchy espoused by Ibn Sina, each of which gives a key role to the Tenth Intellect, shows that in matters of emanation, hierarchy and Neoplatonic intellection, Ibn Sina owes a considerable intellectual debt to his predecessor.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-size: small;">Al-Farabi influenced many other thinkers as well. A glance at the period between </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ah</span><span style="font-size: small;"> 256/</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ad</span><span style="font-size: small;"> 870 and </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ah</span><span style="font-size: small;"> 414/</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ad</span><span style="font-size: small;"> 1023 and at four of the major thinkers who flourished in this period serves to confirm this: Yahya </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H034"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">ibn 'Adi</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, Abu Sulayman </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H040"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-Sijistani</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;">, Abu 'l-Hasan Muhammad ibn Yusuf </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H041"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-'Amiri</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> and Abu Hayyan </span></strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H046"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><strong><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">al-Tawhidi</span></strong></span></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"> may all be said to constitute in one form or another a 'Farabian School'. The Christian Monophysite Yahya ibn 'Adi studied in Baghdad under al-Farabi and others. Like his master, Yahya was devoted to the study of logic; like his master also, Yahya held that there was a real link between reason, ethics and politics. Al-Sijistani was a pupil of Yahya's and thus at one remove from al-Farabi; nonetheless, he shared in both his master's and al-Farabi's devotion to logic, and indeed was known as al-Sijistani al-Mantiqi (The Logician). In his use of Platonic classification and thought, al-Sijistani reveals himself as a true disciple of al-Farabi. Although al-'Amiri appears to speak disparagingly of al-Farabi at one point, there can be no doubt about al-Farabi's impact on him. Indeed, al-'Amiri's works combine the Platonic, the Aristotelian and the Neoplatonic. Finally, Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi, a pupil of both Yahya and al-Sijistani, stressed, for example, the primacy of reason and the necessity of using logic. Like others of the Farabian School outlined above, al-Tawhidi contributed towards a body of thought the primary constituents of which were the soteriological, the ethical and the noetic.<o:p></o:p></span></strong><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>See also:</i> </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H002"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy</span></span></a><span style="font-size: small;">; </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H011"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Greek philosophy: impact on Islamic philosophy</span></span></a><span style="font-size: small;">; </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H026"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Ibn Sina</span></span></a><span style="font-size: small;">; </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H017"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Logic in Islamic philosophy</span></span></a><span style="font-size: small;">; </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H003"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Neoplatonism in Islamic philosophy</span></span></a><span style="font-size: small;">; </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H012"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: small;">Political philosophy in classical Islam</span></span></a><br />
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List of works</h4>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021WKENT1"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">al-Farabi (<i>c.</i>870-950) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City)</span></em>, trans. R. Walzer, <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Al-Farabi on the Perfect State: Abu Nasr al-Farabi's Mabadi' Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila</span></em>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. (Revised with introduction and commentary by the translator.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021WKENT2"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">al-Farabi (<i>c.</i>870-950) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Risala fi'l-'aql (Epistle on the Intellect)</span></em>, ed. M. Bouyges, Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1938. (A seminal text for the understanding of Farabian epistemology.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021WKENT3"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">al-Farabi (<i>c.</i>870-950) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kitab al-huruf (The Book of Letters)</span></em>, ed. M. Mahdi, Beirut: Dar al-Mashriq, 1969. (Modelled on Aristotle's <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Metaphysics</span></em>, but of interest to students of linguistics as well as of philosophy.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021WKENT4"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">al-Farabi(<i>c.</i> 870-950) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kitab ihsa' al-'ulum (The Book of the Enumeration of the Sciences)</span></em>, ed. and trans. A. González Palencia, <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Catálogo de las Ciencias</span></em>, Arabic text with Latin and Spanish translation, Madrid: Imprenta y Editorial Maestre, 1953. (A survey of the learned sciences of the day, of encyclopedic range.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021WKENT5"></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri";">al-Farabi (<i>c.</i>870-950) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Kitab al-musiqa al-kabir (The Great Book of Music)</span></em>, ed. G.A. Khashab and M.A. al-Hafni, Cairo: Dar al-Katib al-'Arabi, 1967. (Al-Farabi's major contribution to musicology.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></strong></div>
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References and further reading</h4>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT1"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">Alon, I. (1990) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">'Farabi's Funny Flora: Al-Nawabit as Opposition'</span></em>, <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Arabica</span></em> 37: 56-90. (Highly creative discussion of the links between the philosophical terminology of Ibn Bajja and al-Farabi, which brings out the complexity of the theological and political ramifications of such language.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT2"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">Black, D. (1996) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">'Al-Farabi'</span></em>, in S.H. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">History of Islamic Philosophy</span></em>, London: Routledge, ch. 12, 178-97. (Account of the thought and main works of al-Farabi.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT3"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">Fakhry, M. (1983) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">A History of Islamic Philosophy</span></em>, London: Longman; New York: Columbia University Press, 2nd edn. (An excellent standard introduction to the field. See especially pages 107-128.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT4"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">Farrukh, U. (1944) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Al-Farabiyyan (The Two Farabis)</span></em>, Beirut. (Ibn Sina's dependence on al-Farabi, as mentioned in §5.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT5"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">Galston, M. (1990) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Politics and Excellence: The Political Philosophy of Alfarabi</span></em>, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (A major analysis of an important aspect of Farabian philosophy.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT6"></a><strong><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: small;">Netton, I.R. (1989) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Allah Transcendent: Studies in the Structure and Semiotics of Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Cosmology</span></em>, London and New York: Routledge. (Contains a wide-ranging chapter on al-Farabi, see pages 99-148. This volume was later published in paperback by Curzon Press in 1994.)</span></strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="H021BIBENT7"></a><strong><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "calibri";">Netton, I.R. (1992) <em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Al-Farabi and His School</span></em>, Arabic Thought and Culture Series, London and New York: Routledge. (Assesses the philosopher through an epistemological lens.)<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></strong></div>
</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">POLITICAL SOCIETY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Man needs the help of his fellowmen to attain the perfection proper to his nature. Unlike the brute, man is not equipped by nature with all that is necessary for the preservation and development of his being. It is only through society that he finds a complete satisfaction of his physical, intellectual and moral needs. Hence, it follows, that society is natural to man.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">These are Alfarabi's words. And according to him society is either perfect or imperfect. Perfect society is of three kinds: the highest, the intermediate and the lowest. The highest is the whole inhabited earth coming under one political organization. The intermediate is a nation occupying a specific place of the inhabited earth. The lowest is a city which represents a fraction of the territory of a nation.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Imperfect society is of three kinds: the village, the suburb of a city and the home. These are merely steps leading to the organization of the state. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="fr_110"></a> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL STATE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Alfarabi describes the organization of a model state in these words:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Just as the world is one harmonious whole ruled by the highest authority of God; just as the stars and the sub-lunar world are linked up and follow one another; just as the human soul is one in different powers; just as the human body is an organized whole moved by the heart; in like manner the state is to be regulated and patterned after these noble models.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In the model state there must be a hierarchy of rulers coming under the control of a supreme head or prince. This prince, head of the model state or of the whole<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">earth, must possess certain traits: great intelligence, excellent memory, eloquence, firmness without weakness, firmness in the achievement of good, love for justice, love for study, love for truth, aversion to falsehood, temperance in food, drink and enjoyments, and contempt for wealth.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">All these traits must be found in one man alone placed in charge of directing the complicated machinery of the state. In case all these traits cannot be found in one man alone, then inquiry should be made to determine whether there are two or more who possess the required traits jointly. If there are two, they should both rule the model state. If there are three, then these three should rule. If more are needed, more should rule. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="fr_111"></a> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Thus the government by one man alone winds up in an aristocratic republic.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">He continues:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Opposed to the model state are: the ignorant state, the perverted state and the mistaken state. The ignorant state is the state that has no knowledge of true happiness, and very often exchanges it for health, wealth and pleasure. Thus, it is the ignorant state which has for its end the acquisition of things, such as food, clothing and shelter; it is the ignorant state which has for its end the enjoyment of eating and drinking, sensual pleasures, amusements and games; it is the ignorant state which has for its end the seeking of praise and the making of a name; it is the ignorant state which believes in false liberty, by which everyone can do as he pleases; it is the ignorant state which pursues imperial-ism as a national policy, namely, the will of conquering people and nations by fire and sword.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The perverted state is the state that maintains a conduct similar to that of the ignorant state, even though it knows what is true happiness and perfection.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The mistaken state is the state that has wrong ideas about God and happiness.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="fr_112"></a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Alfarabi, in his conception of the state, shows a mystico-philosophical belief in the absorption of the human spirit into the world spirit, and finally into God. In fact, he says:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The goal of the model state is not only to procure the</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">material prosperity of its citizens, but also their future destiny. The souls of the citizens of the ignorant state are devoid of reason, and will return to the material elements as sensible forms in order to be united again to other beings, animals or plants.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In both the perverted and mistaken states, the ruler alone is to be held responsible, and he will be punished accordingly in the world hereafter; and the souls which have been led into error share the fate of the citizens of the ignorant state. On the other hand, the good souls will enter the world of pure spirits, and the higher their knowledge in this life, the higher their position after death.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="fr_113"></a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">I cannot help quoting the following passage where Alfarabi shows these good souls in possession of their supreme good:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">When a great number of men have passed away, and their bodies are annihilated, and their souls made happy, other men will follow them. When these have also passed away and attained the happiness they longed for, each of them joins the one he is similar to in kind and degree. These souls join one another as an intelligible joins an intelligible. In proportion as the souls in-crease in number and are united to one another, in the same proportion their happiness increases, for, each one, thinking of his substance, thinks of a great many similar substances, and the object of such thinking goes on increasing indefinitely with the arrival of new souls. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="fr_114"></a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The political theory of Alfarabi is a mixture of Platonic and Aristotelian elements. The main Platonic element is to put all humanity in one universal state. For him, the state as it exists now, is not the model state. The model state, not yet realized, is organized humanity which is not circumscribed by national boundaries. It is likened to a family which has in heaven the same Creator and Father, and on earth the same forebears. In such a family there can be no wars, simply because the vision now of each and everyone is not a particular nation, but humanity; not a particular king, but God.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Such a political conception on the part of Alfarabi might surprise the reader, for, we are wont to think that no one could<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">ever dream of putting the whole world under one political organization, unless that came as a result of the progress of civilization. But it is not so. Just as the idea of political universality was contained in the imperialism of Alexander the Great, and later in the Roman imperialism, in like manner it was contained in the theocratic Moslem conception. And history bears this out.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Furthermore, Alfarabi tempers the ideal state of Plato with some Aristotelian elements, such as private property and the monarchic form of government. This, however, could be easily changed to an aristocratic republic if the required intellectual and moral traits of the chief executive cannot be found but in a few persons.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">In one word, our philosopher envisaged the many nations of the world as welded together into one political organization under a wise ruler.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-91711642324909022832012-07-31T17:03:00.003-07:002012-08-02T09:20:11.260-07:00The Constitution of the United States of America ( USA )<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">The Constitution of the United States of America ( USA )<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">The Constitutional Background<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Its official name in the United States of America and its capital is Washington,D.C ( District of Colombia ).Its area is about 9,826,630 sq KM and people population is about 293,027,570(2004 estimate).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">United States as America, Popularly referred to as the United States or as America is a federal republic on the continent of north America, consisting of 48 contiguous states and the noncontiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii. American revolutionary constitution was adopted by each of the 13 former British colonies in north America after gaining independence from great Britain in the American revolution (1775-1783). Prior to independence, British colonial governments on the continent of North America were based on charters from the British crown, or on instructions given by the crown to royal governors. Those governments, except that of Canada, were overthrown between 1774 and 1776.the final step in their overthrow occurred in may 1776.when the second continental congress resolved that all colonial governments still depending on the British crown should be replaced by their own governments.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Declaration of independence: </span></u></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">when United States of America was not formed, the original thirteen North American states were colonies of the United Kingdom. After a complete struggle, the thirteen British North American colonies proclaimed their independence from Great Britain. The declaration of independence was adopted in final form on July 4, 1776.it can be divided into three parts a statement of principle concerning the rights of man and the legitimacy of revolution, a list of specific grievances against England’s king George III, and a formal claim of independence. For the American colonists, the declaration was an announcement to the to the rest of the world that the colonies were independent from Great Britain. The main declaration was to get internal support for their struggle and to encourage external help from European powers such as France. Today each page of the declaration of independence id protected in a glass and bronze case filled with inert helium gas as monitored with high standard computer technology. Over one million Americans view the document each year in the national archives building in Washington, D.C, where it is displayed along with the constitution of the United States and the bill of rights.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Articles of confederation:</span></u></b><b><u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></u></b><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The Articles of confederation were written while Americans were fighting against the British imperialism in their region. The articles created a weak central government that depended on the states to raise taxes, required the agreement of nine of the thirteen states to pass most measures, and called for the agreement of all state legislatures to any changes in the government’s structure. These laws setup a method for the entrance of new states to the union. The articles of confederation, drawn up between 177the 1776 and 1777 by the second continental congress, set out a plan for a union. they were fully implemented in march 1781 and work up to June, 1787.the continental congress gave the states as much independence as possible and to specify the limited functions of the federal government as possible and to specify the limited functions of the federal government but very carefully, certain factors delayed reification of the articles but final ratification of the articles was made on march, 1, 1781.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Constitutional convention:</span></u></b><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The constitutional convention at last met during the summer of 1787 at which delegates from 12 states wrote the constitution of the United States. In the convention the Philadelphia, the delegates abandoned the articles of confederation, the first constitution of the United States, created a stronger form of government. This new government included two legislative houses, the House of Representatives and the senate; the president and the Supreme Court. By June 21, 1788, the constitution had been ratified by nine states and went into effect. With the addition of 26 amendments since that time, it has remained the fundamental law of the United States of America.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During the 1780s several American leaders, especially nationalists, desired a stronger federal government. They thought the state legislatures changed laws too strong federal government. The nationalists argued that democracy was giving way to violence and threatening order and good government. Hamilton and Madison, the nationalist politicians, sought to move power away from the stats and Madison, the nationalist politicians, sought to move power away from the states and to create a larger frame of centralized government. In September of 1786 a number of these nationalists, led by Hamilton, met and decided to strengthen the articles of confederation. Seven states selected delegates even before the congress cautiously sanctioned the meeting in February 1787, although congress approved the meeting, it added provision that any changes ad to be approved by congress and the states. Once the convention began, George Washington was elected its president. The Virginia delegation began the convention by giving various proposals. The most significant of these called the articles of confederation. The delegates passed the resolution to abandon the articles of branches: executive, judicial, and legislative. The legislature would have two houses, with the upper house being selected by the lower house. The executive would be selected by the legislature. Representation in the legislature was to be based on population.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Delegates from the smaller states objected to representation based on population and the emphasized that the states remain sovereign so that they could maintain absolute and final authority on questions of law and policy. The small-state delegates accepted the idea of having three branches of government, but they did not want a single executive but accepted a judiciary with limited functions, and a legislature in which each state ad an equal vote. The convention delegates finally agreed on proportional representation for the lower house, the House of Representatives. To the smaller states it conceded equal representation in the upper house, the senate. This compromise guaranteed the political future of the individual states. It also meant that the delegates would be created a new government, rather than revising the articles of confederation. The convention agreed upon three branches but created a system of checks and balances so that one branch would be more powerful than another. The delegates also sought a balance between the power of the states and the power of the federal government. The president, who was given appointive and military powers, was to be selected by an electoral college made up of the people appointed from each state. The senate was also to be chosen not by the voters, but by the assemblies of the states.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Supporters of the constitution called themselves Federalists attacked the constitution on several grounds. They first objected to the absence of a bill of rights. They feared that the new, stronger central government could too easily threaten these liberties. Anti-federalist feared that the proposed federal government would have too much power. The president was seen a semi dictator. Anti-federalist viewed the senate and judiciary as aristocratic house of their nomination they dislike the House of Representatives because they believed and did not contain enough members. The Federalists responded these objections and argued that a stronger form of government would avoid future conflicts between the states .in the new constitution each branch of government could be given greater power because each was special representative of the people. The Federalists claimed that under the constitution neither that states not the federal government would be sovereign but the people would be sovereign. The constitution went into effect on June 21, 1788.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Federalists soon conceded the need for a guarantee of human rights. By 1791 the new government had ratified the first ten amendments, which outlined a Bill of Rights. During the following years, 16 more amendments were made to the Constitution, including amendments to election laws provisions regarding slavery and political status of women. The authors of the Constitution created a document that stands today as the fundamental law of one of the longest-lived democracies in the world.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Features/Characteristics Of The U.S Constitution :<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The American Constitution, due to its certain features is a unique and interesting document. The most important attributes of the constitution of the United States are as under:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Written and Brief:</span></u></b><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The US constitution has been framed by the Philadelphia convention of 1787 by the ex-thirteen colonies of the Great Britain and was enforced in 1789. The delegates from the thirteen colonies under the leadership of Washington framed this constitution. It has the declaration of the independence and a preamble. It has only seven articles. So it is written and the most brief constitution of the world. Indian constitution on the other side is most bulky constitution imposed on 26<sup>th</sup> nocemver, 1949 having 395 articles. Its brief nature has left too much ground for gradual development by the judicial decisions, conventions, laws passed by congress and constitutional amendments etc. twenty-six congress amendments have brought too many changes. The original constitution provided for the Supreme Court while the remaining judicial set-up has been provided by the congress.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">George Washington was instrumental in bringing about the constitutional convention of 1787. Elected as a delegate to the convention by the Virginia general assembles, Washington was chosen its president. In that position, he avoided expressing his political opinions. Since it was likely he would be the nation’s first president, he understood the need for his, impartiality.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thomas Jefferson was the author of the declaration of independence, a principal leader in the American Revolution and the third president of the United States. Jefferson is also regarded as a great political thinker and diplomat.</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div></div></div></div>Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-54336809096190173782012-05-19T12:11:00.004-07:002012-12-24T08:11:55.161-08:00Al-Mawardi<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Early Life<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b>Abual Hassan Ben Muhammad Ben Habib Al-Mawardi born in 974 A.C. and expires in Baghdad in 1058 A.C. He worked as teacher and then was appointed as judge. Al-Mawardi was a well known judge of Baghdad. When he was offered the office of Chief justice, he denied accepting the offer by saying people than him to work as CJ.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>He wrote many books including Kitaab Al Ahkaam Al-Sultania, Tafseer, Nishat al Maluk, Qawaneen ul Wazarat and adab al Qazi etc.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Theory of Caliphate or Imamate:-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b>Al Mawardi is a Muslim philosopher. Therefore, he presents his theory of imamate within the limits of Shariah. Mawardi says that Allah has laid down laws in order that issues might be satisfactorily and principles of right ,truth and goodness may be widely known. Allah has given as trust the control of his creatures to various governments so that the administration of the world might be properly carried on.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>According to Al-Mawardi Imamat is the base on which the rules and regulations of the community depend. Mawardi says that the real motive of the institution is to follow the straight path and to strengthen the political bonds.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Main Features of his concept of Imamat are as under: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b> </b><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Requirements of Shariah:</span> Al-Mawardi says that the institution of Imamat is the need of Shariah and not of reason. Through this Institution Allah almighty want to run the early administration in a proper way.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Al-Mawardi is of the opinion that imamate or Caliphate is to represent the mission of Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH). This institution is to save Islam from the destructive propaganda. Caliphate is the institution, which is the result of the versus of the Holy Quran. Quran stresses an ideal society where there is dominance of good over evils and where there is general obedience of the laws of Allah.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>The holy Quran is not to answer the question whether there is any need of Imamate? According to Al-Mawardi the need is proved either by consensus or reason. Quranic Verses give us general principles i.e.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span> <b>‘’Obey Allah, obey the prophet (PBUH) and the ruler from amongst you.’’<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span> <b>‘’The Muslims should settle their affairs by mutual consultation.’’<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span> <b>The Quran commands the Prophet (PBUH) to consult the Muslims in state affairs.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>So he is to conclude from these verses that Imam is allowed to nominate the members of Shura. But in practice the early period of Islamic state and modern thought is to oppose his view. Al-Mawardi holds that the Holy Quran says nothing about this institution but it is the result of consensus. <br />There is flexibility in Islam and this issue has been left to the Muslims community to decide.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Election of the Imam: </span>Al-Mawardi advocates that it is very important to elect someone as imam through the consensus of the community. Mawardi is to describe the qualification of the voters. He ignores artificial factors like age, Property and residence etc but those who can distinguish between good and bad, between right and wrong and between the wise and poise.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Election procedure is:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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1)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span> People are to elect Imam Through consensus.</div>
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2)<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span> The existing Imam is to nominate his successor.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">No Absolutism in Caliphate:</span> Al-Mawardi after studying history concludes that the forty years of Pious Caliphate represented the Islamic democracy. The fundamental principles of Caliphate remained unchanged and in working condition. There was no idea of absolute caliphate. Al-Mawardi is right to say that Caliphate was a responsible institution because basic elements of democracy were there. After the period of the Pious Caliph, Caliphate converted into monarchy.<o:p></o:p></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Comments:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Although Al-Mawardi was not a political philosopher and he did not the basics of the constitution but his theory of caliphate is of prime importance. It paved way for further research. it appreciated the period or pious caliphs. A problem in his idea is that Al-Mawardi stresses on the rights and prerogatives of the caliphs but ignores rights and obligations of the people.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> Concept of imam or caliph or sovereign<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mawardi’s political philosophy revolves around his concept of imamate. The first chapter of his book, kitaab Al-Ahkam Al Sultania is to tell us about the sovereign of Imam. Al-Mawardi used the term ‘Imamate’ for the term ‘Caliphate’ and the term ‘imam’ for ‘Caliph’. He describes method of appointment, powers, qualities and method of deposition of imam. He says an imam is to run state’s political and social administration but within the limits of the divine laws. Imam is the highest leader fully obeyed and supported by the people of his state. Societies are need of such leaders who are trustworthy and who are supported by all the people of the state. Such a person is called imam or sovereign. Al-Mawardi is of the view that the office of imam established after the pouse caliphs. Al-Mawardi says various factor made this institution controversial. E.g. what will be the qualities of imam? Which family or tribe is suited for this office? Is it specific for a particular family or race? These questions are responsible for the sects in Islam. A group specially Shiats or of the view that is a specific right of a particular family and is a hereditary institutions another group says that it is specific Quraish. While a third group supported by Al-Mawardi is of the opinion that any person may be appointed as imam. But on the bases of his qualities and merit.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi is of the view that imam is must because to maintain justice in the state and to differentiate good and bad. Imam is a natural need of a state to organize the society and to solve mutual differences.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Qualification of imam:</span></u></b><b><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A candidate for this office should have the following qualities:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Male: Al-Mawardi says only male are allowed to be imam of an Islamic state. Female is not in position to become imam.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Adult: only adult and man of conscience is allowed to contest this office.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Free: according to Al-Mawardi, only free citizens are allowed to be imam. Slave, even if they are free, are not allowed.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Man of character: a man of high character with soft and clean heart should world as imam. His character must be exemplary. If there is only a small stigma in the character of the candidate, it pollutes purity of human conscience. It is to produce vagueness in the bright of human heart.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Man if justice: a ruler must be proponent of justice. A cruel person is neither in position to give rights to his people now can protect their rights.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Not miser: a miser person is always coward. Therefore, only those who are not misers are to contest for this office.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Brave: imam must be brave. A coward or weak person is never in position to fight with social and political evils and events. He is not in position to face up downs.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stable: it is an important quality of a good ruler that he must be stable in his decision and governing. An instable person cannot become a good ruler. The person who feels fear cannot prove himself a good leader.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Neutral temperature: statesmanship is an art that is in need of a neutral and cold-mined person. An emotional person is not in position to handle difficult situations.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Deep sighted: a good ruler is to go to the roots of the events and then he is in position to decide correctly and with justice. An imam should have the qualities like foresightedness and deep sightedness.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Of firm opinion: to become an impressive ruler, the imam must have firm opinion. His opinions must be mature. A person of raw-opinion has no command.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Physically and sensually fit: imam’s administration will be ineffective if he is physically or sensually weak. Therefore, his physically fitness and sensitivity are must. Weakness in organs and senses is to inversely influence administration.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mumem- obedient of Shariah: a person decimated from Shariah of Muhammad ( PBUH ) cannot become a good ruler. So, he must be moment.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Allim, Faqih and preacher: the ruler must be alim and Faqih .A person who as no knowledge of Islam and who has no command in fiqa, is not true and effective imam. He is then to represent ignorance. He should preach Islam.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Liked by majority</span></u></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">: A good ruler is that who choice of the Majority is to opt for such a ruler. who is has the aforesaid qualities.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi describes qualification for the office of the imam. The most significant may be summarized as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> 1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Imam must be male Muslims.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> 2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b> <b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> He must be free and adult.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b> <b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Man of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b> <b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Brave and courageous. Mujahid.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b> <b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">His senses and organs are right.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b> <b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Preferably from Quraish. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Election/ succession of the imam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">According to Al-Mawardi, imamate comes into being through an electoral process. This office therefore, is the outcome of Ijma. People have been empowered to elect the best one among them as caliph. He quotes a Hadith: ‘’ my followers cannot come into consensus on a sin.’’ This is the supreme duty of Ummah to elect imam. Al-Mawardi describes two methods. i.e.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Elected by the majority of the electorates or<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Nominated by the existing imam.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Election:</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Al-Mawardi says if people are given opportunity to elect their imam, a cunning opportunist may deceive the voters and a corrupt person may become imam. This method is suitable only if qualities of the voters are also assessed. If there is a limited number of a voter so, there will be more chance to elect the best one as imam. He is of the view that this method is suitable only if qualities of the voters are also assessed. If there are a limited number of voters so, there will be more chance to elect the best one as imam. He is of the view that this method was adopted to elect Hazrat Abu Bakar (May Allah Be Pleased With Him). He gives the instance of Hazrat Abbas who said to Hazrat Ali ‘’Stretch your hand, I will swear my allegiance to you, and when people come to know that the Prophet’s uncle has sworn his allegiance to his once the new imam takes oath to that he would loyally perform the duties assigned to him. This is followed by the allegiance of the people to be loyal to the new Imam.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi holds that the election of a less qualified in the presence of a more qualified is valid if the elected one fulfills the requisites qualification. He also holds that if there is only one candidate for this office, he automatically becomes caliph and there is no need of election. There is no capacity of two imams at the same time.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nomination: in the second method, an existing imam is to nominate his successor. This method is also suitable because an imam is nominated keeping in view the determined qualities. He presents the example of Hazrat Abu Bakr (mAbpwh) who nominated Hazrat umar Farooq (mAbpwh). He is of the view that there consensus on this point that the existing imam can nominate his successor. Hazrat Abu Bakr nominated Hazrat Umar and people obeyed his order in the form of unquestionable allegiance. Hazrat Umar appointed a shura to elect imam. It was an order of the existing imam. Al-Mawardi says that nomination of the heir is invalid unless the nominee shows his willingness to accept the office, the imam when nominated one as heir, he cannot withdraw his nomination until there occurs in the heir some important changes making him disqualified. The imam has the power to appoint an electoral college or to nominate heir imam.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi says that the existing imam can nominate more than one Imam to succeed one another in turn. He gives example of the battle of Mutah. Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) nominated Zayd as commander of the Muslims forces to be succeeded by japer Ben Ali if he fells. Jaffa would be succeeded by Abdullah and in case he also fails when the Muslims are allowed to choose anyone among themselves .<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Deposition/Removal of Imam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi is of the view when imam is one elected, he cannot be removed. Imam mau be deposed if:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Moral Degradation: Imam must be a symbol of morality and justice. He may be deposed if he becomes morally degraded and his immoral acts are dangerous for the collectible interests. To al-Mawardi moral degradation secondly if he becomes interested in worldly affairs. Thirdly, if there is change in this ideology either willingly or under the influence of a foreign body. ‘’ in such a situation people have their right to remove him from his office.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Laws of Islamic state: </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">in the lifetime of the holy prophet (PBUH) there was no any legal problem but after his sad demise, the rulers faced varicose problems. They resorted to the holy Quran and hadiths. With the passage of time Itihad was also introduced. He stresses the importance of hadiths but he also says that some elements invented hadiths just to serve their personal case and to destroy unity among the muslims. He explained various case of the invention of baseless hadiths i.e. for political purpose because of creeds, inventions by the non- Muslims to praise the rulers and to satisfy those who were the disbelievers of ijtihad or qiyas etc. so, Al-Mawardi says that there are three major sources of the Islamic law i.e. the holy Quran, hadiths and sunnah.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Administration: </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi explains state administration in very detail. he is of the opinion that state government should comprise of executive judiciary various departments , commander and police. he explains qualities of these office barriers .he even explains functions of various office barriers. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Concept of rebellion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi is to empower citizens of the Islamic state to rebel against the government but in case of certain reasons’ and both <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In his book he quotes a Hadith. The prophet (PBHM) said, ‘’ after me there will be appointed rulers over you and both the good as well as bad deeds will go by them; for if they rule with fairness the good of it will occur to them and to you both. If they rule with inequality you will get the benefit of it and they, the evil consequences thereof,’’ (Hazrat Abu Hurairah).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The people of the Islamic state must revolt if:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span>·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The ruler become, enemy of Islam and he preaches un-Islamic ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"> ·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If he is to impose laws quite contradictory to Shariah.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If the ruler is to ignore provisions of opportunities to his people for worship.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span>·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If he is to openly violate human rights.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span>·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The ruler is found to follow un-Islamic practices and crosses the boundaries of Islam. It despite peoples objections, he is to exercise the same practices.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span>·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If justice is crushed by the ruler or he becomes silent spectator on violation of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span>·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">If he enters in agreements with the enemies of Islam. If the same agreements are hazardous for the cause of Islam and the Muslims <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi is of the view that people should not extend unconditional obedience to the caliph or imam. He says if one or all of the above conditions are there and the Muslims are still silent, so, one should imagine that their faith has weakened to a large. He discards tyrannical attitude of the sovereign. His theory of rebellion is not quite obvious. He is silent how to depose the imam. There is no any example, when Hazrat Abu Bakr delivers his first official statement, he said, ‘’ obey me as long as I obey Allah, but Quran and hadiths discourages tyrant imam. The holy Quran says, ‘’ the holy prophet (PBUH) says, ‘’ some of the most loved the nearest persons to me on the day of judgment shall be the just imam and the most hated and damnable person to me on the day of judgment shall be the tyrant imam.’’<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">THEORY OF STATE DEPARTMENTS (STATE ADMINISTRATION)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> (BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT) </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi is of the view that a good government is in need of efficient administration. He explains various branches of government in the light of the teachings of the Holy Quran, hadiths and period of the pios caliphs. Important branches of government are:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Wazrat (Ministries)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi discusses Wazrat in detail in his book, Ahkam-Al-Sultania. He says sultan is in need of assistance and advices in state administration. He says Sultan is in need of assisstance and advices in state administration.This assistant and advisor appeared in the name of wazir.Perhaps the name 'wazir' was not in early use but in practive the office had existence.in the period of the Holy Prophet ( P.B.U.H), Hazrat Abu Bakr and Hazrat Umar played the role of wazirs (Ministers).Mwardi quotes from the Holy Quranto prove the wxistence of ministries. Hazrta muses prayed: "Make in my family my brother Haroon my minister to enable me to stengthen my back.''He quotes Hadith: i have two ministers on earth (Hazrat Abu Bakr and Hazrat Umar) and two ministers are in the sky Hazrat Jabril and Hazrat Mikael).</span></b><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Al Mawardi has analyzed the term ‘Wazir’. He says this word has been taken from the words ‘wazir’. He concluded many meanings: it means burden, load and responsibility. Minister is to carry the load of state administration on behalf of the caliph. It means to consult. The caliph is to consult him in state administration. Azar means ‘back’ and wazir is like a strong back of the caliph.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Wazir is the powerful assistant of the sovereign to assist him in state administration. A sovereign is to depend on his ministers. In an Islamic state, the ministers must be Muslims. Mawardi explained essential qualities of the ministers by giving example of mamoon –ur –Rasheed who used to say that he is in need of ministers having the qualities: high social, fond of study, clever because of his experiences, keeper of secrets, problem solver, silent with jalal and if speaks so he should seem like a flowing river, content, courageous, philosopher, morality, deep-sighted, patience, polite and magnetic talks. If there is minister having the aforesaid qualities, he will assist the ruler and will work hard for the uplift of the people. Mawardi enumerates the qualities of good ministers as: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>honest, self-confident, free of lust, influential, foresighted, hard worker, impressive talks, content, free and active.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Al-Mawardi says there are two kinds of minister’s i.e.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Minister delegation (wazir-e-Tafweez) and<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Minister execution (Wazir-e-Tanqeed).<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">A)</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Minister Delegation<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Mawardi says sovereign is in need of a good and honest colleague. He should help the sovereign in the state administration. Minister delegation must be expert tax collecting, defense affairs and treasury. He is faqih and makes state policy in such a way they he considers all factors. Mawardi‘s minister execution resembles office of the prime minister. He is to administer state affairs with full powers. The only authority above him is imam. Minister delegation should have the following qualities: <o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">a.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Very honest.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">b.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Highly self-confident.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">c.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Talented and deep-sighted<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">d.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Disinterested in rest and leisure.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">e.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Experienced and foresighted<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">f.</span><span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Not greedy.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Following ar the powers of minister delegation:<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">To frame state policy under intimation to imam. This policy must confirm the basic principles of Shariah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">To appoint important officials like judges<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">To arrange for the protection of state and din.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">He to probe into the cruel activities and to punish vruel doers.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">He should arrange to maintain law and order situation in the state.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Powers of the minister delegation are too much. His powers are equal with the imam but imam is superior in the sense:<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Firstly, the imam can remove the caliph and minister delegation has no such power.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Secondly, imam can appoint his successor but minister delegation cannot do so because he himself is appointee of minister delegation but he cannot do so.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">This office is of much importance. The imam ever respects his decisions and generally never tries to interfere in his decisions. Imam is to provide guidance to the minister delegation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">Minister delegation according to Al-Mawardi is a person in whom the imam has the fullest confidence; he is delegated maximum powers by the imam. Importance of this office is obvious from the quotation of Al-Mawardi, ‘’ if the wazir gives a certain order. If it is found that the order has been issued according to the legal procedure in force then it would not be within the power of the imam to rescind it. </span></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A)<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Minister execution<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Powers and position of minister execution is not of prime; significance. Minister execution is to execute policy of the government. He is to advise government and to provide vital information to government. The office is similar to the secretary to the government in modern times. Mawardi counts seven qualities for this office, which are honesty, confidence absence of greed, good relations with the people, intelligence and wisdom to understand truth, no luxury loving, diplomacy and experience. His important functions are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>To assess expenditures of government departments and the departments are provided money for their expenditures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Execution of decrees of the imam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>To provide information of imam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A non-Muslim citizen may be appointed as minister execution. He cannot interfere in the affairs like appointment of the governors and in military expeditions. It is very interesting to note that Mawardi presents a concept of parliamentary cabinet. He is of the view that imam can appoint various ministers execution to run various departments. If a minister execution resigns, the rest of the ministers will work. If the minister delegation resigns, the rest of the ministers shall be considered as removed. So, minister delegation is just like a prime minister and minister’s execution are like the cabinet ministers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<u><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Judiciary:<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Like his predecessor, al-Mawardi stresses on justice and qaza. He is of the opinion that after the imam and misters, qaza is a very important branch of government. Justice is the very base of a successful state. A state where there is no justice, such states ever fall. The give justice with impartiality is a difficult and complicated task. Therefore, while considered, he suggests that there must be a test among the talented citizens to select effective judges, various factors like ability and merit etc must be considered. He suggests that there must be a test among the talented citizens to select effective judges. He is of the opinion that it is a very respected office therefore, in normal conditions a judge should not be removed from his office. It will secure his service this enabling him to decide without any fear or pressure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A judge should have the qualities: firstly, intelligent and clever so, he may be in position to go to the grass roots of the issues. Secondly male (according to Abu hanifa school of thought, a female may be appointed judge if she bears the required qualities). Thirdly, he must not be slave. Fourthly, Muslim (Abu Hanifa allows a non-Muslim judge if he is to handle those cases where there is no involvement of shariah). Fifthly, honest and temperate. Sixthly, having the knowledge of the holy Quran hadiths and fiqa. Seventhly, he should have perfect heatinf and seeing capabilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Powers/ functions<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi is not only to enumerate qualities for the office of the qazi but enumerates his powers and functions:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>To secure rights: if anyone is to engulf rights of the weak citizen, it is the duty of the judge to restore to him his due rights. He should punish those who snatch rights of the others.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Supervision of awqaaf: those properties which are trusted for religious purposes, these are looked-after by the judge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Protection of children, and mental’ properties: sometimes properties of the mental and children are occupied by the evil people. It is the duty of the judge to protect such properties.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Widow’s marriage: apparently this is a personal matter but if may affect community. It is to avoid suspensions and spread of expected evils. If there is no state care, it may endanger honor of the state, imam and his government. It is the duty of the judge to arrange widows’ marriages. State must interfere in this affair because it may become a source of dishonor for the rulers and the state.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Execution of wasiah: if a person is to die, he issues his final statement and makes some decisions. It is called wasiah. From religious point of view, wasiah is of prime importance. It is responsibility of the judge to implement these statements and decisions of the deceased.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Supervision of subordinates: a judge is the chief of the judicial system in a state. He is to maintain subordinate staff to assist him. Judiciary is very significant department because a judge is to decide fates of the families. His powers, pen and name is of prime importance. Sometimes subordinates are to use name of their senior and people are deceived. Some of the employees in this department may be corrupt. So, because of the sensitivity of this branch of government, the judge should closely supervise his subordinate staff. His supervision is must for the cause of justice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Imposition of Hadoods: a judge is empowered to decide various cases. It is the duty of the judge to apply hadoods. He is to decide within the limits of Shariah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Maintaining balance: a society is full of good and wicked people. Bad and wicked ones ever try to disturb the gentle and polite citizens. It is the responsibility of the judge to maintain neutrality between these two types of people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span>Appointment of Amins: a judge is to appoint trustworthy people to guard trusted things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Departments (Diwan)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To produce ease in state administration, a government should have various diwans (departments). Al-Mawardi is of the view that four departments are important: defense, provincial control, finance and recruitment. Al-Mawardi says defense department is to guard state borders and to make census in the state to find how many people are technically expert and how many can join military forces. The department of provincial control is to supervise fuctions of the provincial governments. It is to recommend measures to abolish lawlessness, mal administration and disturbance in a province. Finance is to deal with dhimis. The recruitment or establishment department is to appoint state employees, to make their removal, transfer and promotion policies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tab-stops: 207.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sipahsalar (commander in chief)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tab-stops: 207.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The state should have active military forces and these forces should have qualities,attitude with his juniors, behavior with the prisoners of war and attitude with his enemies. He counts five major responsibilities of the commander.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 207.0pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Not to allow military personnel to adopt professions like agriculture and business.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 207.0pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>To train army in such a way as to increase their professional skill especially to guard against the attack of the enemy and to attack enemy.to destroy enemy’s potential<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 207.0pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Selection of the battlefield, especially in those places where supply is easy and where his army is well protected.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 207.0pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>To facilitate animals used by army.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 207.0pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To encourage his forces; to meet with them and to acknowledge to them advantages of war.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tab-stops: 207.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Muhtasib (Police or ombudsman)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tab-stops: 207.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Al-Mawardi has explained powers and functions of the muhtasib and categorizes his duties into two categories: paid and volunteer. He is to maintain law<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and order situation in the state, internal stability, to guard social values, to compel people to obey laws, on the spor sentences especially in those crimes which committed openly and to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>send criminals before the courts.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<o:p></o:p></span></span></b> </div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3050789517915681261.post-8115194925803384472012-05-19T12:10:00.000-07:002012-05-19T12:10:12.042-07:00Pre-Independence History<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the Era of colonialism that was due to the immense wealth
of Indo-Pakistan which aroused a desire in the minds of the Englishmen to trade
with the East. A body of English merchants applied to Queen Elizabeth for a
charter granting then right of the trading in the East. In 1660, Queen granted
them under the title “The Governor and company of Merchants of London trading
into the East Indies’’. This company is generally known as the East India
Company.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1608, Mughal Emperor, Jehangir granted the English permission
to settle at Surat but the Portuguese ‘influence at the Mughal court was so strong
that this concession was repealed. However the company continued to carry on
the work. In 1612,the East India Company under the command of Thomas Best succeeded
in defeating a Portuguese fleet at surat.This victory enhanced the prestige of
the English. As a result, the Mughal emperor allowed the English to establish a
permanent factory at Surat.In 1615, the naval victory over Portuguese was
followed by the arrival of Sir Thomas Roe as ambassador of the James-I to the Mughal
court English prospects were much improved by an English surgeon named Gabriel
Boughton who worked as court physicians with the Mughal Subedar of Bengal,
Sultan Shuja. As a price of service rendered to the Mughal subedar, he optioned
from him in a licensed for the company to trade in the province in 1650.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The English set up a factory in Hugli in 1651 and soon after
Patna and Qasim Bazar.The Company’s policy in indo Pakistan went under a change
during the last quarter of the 17<sup>th</sup> century’s peace full trading
body was transformed into a power to establish its own position in view of the
political disorder in the country. Thus the company had decided to adopt a new policy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Following their policy slowly and gradually the British
started occupying different stats one by one.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 23<sup>rd</sup> June 1757 battle was fought between
nawab’s army commanded by Jafar and Siraj ud dullah, Mir Jaffar was backed by English,
defeated Siraj ud dullah who was backed by the French. Conspiracy of Mir Jafar
resulted in the loss of the independence of Bengal. The victory at Plessey gave
the battle of Buxar the English got supremacy in Indo-Pakistan by controlling
Bihar and Orissa and due to this their prestige was greatly enhanced. Mir Qasim
formed a confederacy with Nawab’s Shuja-ud-Dullah and the emperor Shah Alam II.
They made a common cause against the English and attacked Patna but were
repulsed by English General, Major Hector Munro in 1964.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Immediately after the outbreak of war with Mir Qasim, the
English once again placed Mir Jafar on the throne and obtained certain
privileges from him. When Mir Jafar died in February, 1765, his son Nizam ud
Dullah was installed on the throne on the condition that the entire management
of administration should be left in the hands of the minister nominated by
English and could not be dismissed without their approval. Thus the supreme
control over the administration passed into the hands of the English, while the
Nawab became a puppet.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1789, Lord Cornwallis formed a triple alliance against
Tipu Sultan and ultimately defeated Tipu sultan and Bangalore fill into the
hands of the enemy. The Sultan took shelter in Saringapatam. He did not loss
his courage and send envoys to Arabia, Kabul, Constrantipol and France for help
against the British. When Wellesley, the Governor General of India came to know
of the Sultan’s activities, he became hostile to him. He declared war against
him in February, 1799.The Sultan fought gallantly but without success. He died
a soldier’s death in defense of his country. These events gave opportunity to
the British to deep root themselves in the Indian sub-continent. After the war
of independence in 1857, the British completely gained political control of the
region.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The sepoy Rebellion also known as the Indian war of Independence
erupted in 1857 and became a widespread revolt against British rule. After the British
quelled the rebellion in 1858, they immediately took steps to maintain control.
The British government officially abolished the Mughal Empire and exiled
Muhammad bahadur shah to Burma. In addition, the British government transferred
authority from the English east India Company to the British crown,
establishing direct imperial rule in India. To help consolidate control the British
initiated a series of educational, administrative, and political processes
between 1858 and 1900. English was introduced as the official language. </div>
</div>Khushalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11343802041077739760noreply@blogger.com0